Emotion

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Emotions)
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Emotion is a mental state [1][2][3] variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.[4][5] There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation.[6] In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of our body's nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of our feeling afraid. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. Consciously experiencing an emotion is exhibiting a mental representation of that emotion from a past or hypothetical experience, which is linked back to a content state of pleasure or displeasure.[7] The content states are established by verbal explanations of experiences, describing an internal state.[8]

Emotions are complex. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior.[5] The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative.[9] According to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.[10]

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits[11] described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.

Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology of emotions, and computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective picture processes in the brain.[12]

"Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. The original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the passing on of genes through survival, reproduction, and kin selection.[13][14]

Etymology and history[edit]

Sixteen faces expressing the human passions-coloured engraving by J. Pass, 1821, after Charles Le Brun

The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a catch-all term to passions, sentiments and affections.[15] The word emotion was coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and it is around the 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first emerged.[16] "No one felt emotions before about 1830. Instead they felt other things - "passions", "accidents of the soul", "moral sentiments" - and explained them very differently from how we understand emotions today."[16]

According to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language.[17] The modern word emotion is heterogeneous[18]

It is interesting that many languages other than English have a similar but not identical term[19][20] In anthropology, an inability to express or perceive emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia.[21]

Definitions[edit]

The Oxford Dictionary definition of emotion is "A strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others."[22] Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events.[23]

Emotions can be occurrences (e.g., panic) or dispositions (e.g., hostility), and short-lived (e.g., anger) or long-lived (e.g., grief).[24] Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity.[25] Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame.[26] Emotions have been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms.[27]

Emotions have been categorized, with some relationships existing between emotions and some direct opposites existing. Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits.[28]

In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.[29] On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse.[18]

In practical terms, Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger.[30] Lisa Feldman Barrett has defined emotions as "a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment."[31]

Components[edit]

In Scherer's components processing model of emotion,[32] five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.

  • Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and objects.
  • Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience.
  • Action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses.
  • Expression: facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions.
  • Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred.

Differentiation[edit]

Plutchik's emotional dyads.
The above dyads sorted into opposites.

Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:[27]

  • Feeling; not all feelings include emotion, such as the feeling of knowing. In the context of emotion, feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them.[citation needed]
  • Moods are diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions, are also usually less intense than emotions and often appear to lack a contextual stimulus.[29]
  • Affect is used to describe the experience of feeling or emotion.

Purpose and value[edit]

One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. Emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors.[33] However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value.[34]

Classification[edit]

A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.[36]

The classification of emotions has mainly been researched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first viewpoint is that emotions are a set of discrete and fundamentally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be described in terms of a few broad, continuous dimensions. However, more recently, it has been noted that treating these as opposing viewpoints fails to separate claims about the conceptualization of emotion (or the nature of the concepts that best describe emotion-related responses), the dimensionality of emotion (or the number of varieties of emotion-related response), and the structure of emotion (the extent to which different varieties of emotion are discrete or can be blended together).[37]

Basic emotions[edit]

Examples of basic emotions

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.[38] Later in his career,[39] Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.[40][41][42]

Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation.[38] Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.[44]

Multi-dimensional analysis[edit]

Two dimensions of emotion

Psychologists have used methods such as factor analysis to attempt to map emotion-related responses onto a more limited number of dimensions. Such methods attempt to boil emotions down to underlying dimensions that capture the similarities and differences between experiences.[45] Often, the first two dimensions uncovered by factor analysis are valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels). These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map.[46] This two-dimensional map has been theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect.[47][48] Core affect is not theorized to be the only component to emotion, but to give the emotion its hedonic and felt energy.

More recently, studies have revealed that people reliably experience and express many other dimensions of emotion beyond valence and arousal.[49][50] For example, video clips can reliably evoke at least 27 distinct dimensions of self-reported emotional experience.[51] The different elicitors that evoke this wide range of distinct emotional experiences have been visualized within an interactive map.[52]

Theories[edit]

Ancient Greece, Ancient China, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Middle Ages[edit]

Theories about emotions stretch back to at least as far as the stoics of Ancient Greece and Ancient China. In China, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to qi, which in turn, damages the vital organs.[53] The four humours theory made popular by Hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine.

During the Islamic Golden Age, Persian polymath Avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions.[54] Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue.[55] In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas[56] in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza,[57] Thomas Hobbes[58] and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

Evolutionary theories[edit]

19th century

Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with Charles Darwin's 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[59] Darwin argued that emotions actually served a purpose for humans, in communication and also in aiding their survival. Darwin, therefore, argued that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have universal cross-cultural counterparts. Darwin also detailed the virtues of experiencing emotions and the parallel experiences that occur in animals. This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.

Contemporary

More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.[9] Current research[citation needed] suggests that emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio.

Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[9] Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.[9][60]

Somatic theories[edit]

Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo,[61] António Damásio,[62] Joseph E. LeDoux[63] and Robert Zajonc[64] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[citation needed]

James–Lange theory[edit]

In his 1884 article[65] William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion."[66] To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."[65]

An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.[67] Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).[68]

Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions.[69]

The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion." (p. 583)

Cannon–Bard theory[edit]

Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion.[70] He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.[71][72] An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.[71]

Two-factor theory[edit]

Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.[73] With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

Cognitive theories[edit]

With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:

  1. Cognitive appraisal – The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.
  2. Physiological changes – The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.
  3. Action – The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.

For example: Jenny sees a snake.

  1. Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.
  2. Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenaline through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat.
  3. Jenny screams and runs away.

Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.

George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984)

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the ‘standard objection’ to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[74] The affect infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information.

Perceptual theory

Theories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion (Goldie, 2007). A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions, and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.

Affective events theory

Affective events theory is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes –\ a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections on Affective Events Theory", published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005.

Situated perspective on emotion[edit]

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology.[75] This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

Genetics[edit]

Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring.

In the five million years since the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.

How emotions are formed[edit]

Neurobiological explanation[edit]

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).[76]

For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.

The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept – one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.[76]

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

In 2011, Lövheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of the signal substances dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin and eight basic emotions. A model was presented where the signal substances form the axes of a coordinate system, and the eight basic emotions according to Silvan Tomkins are placed in the eight corners. Anger is, according to the model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high noradrenaline.[77]

Prefrontal cortex[edit]

There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.[78] If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli[79] and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[80]

Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.[81]

This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness[82] and research on behavioral inhibition.[83] Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency Model.[84][85]

Homeostatic/primordial emotion[edit]

Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion: "classical" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and "homeostatic emotions" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.[86]

Derek Denton calls the latter "primordial emotions" and defines them as "the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis. They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain and hunger for specific minerals etc. There are two constituents of a primordial emotion--the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act."[87]

Explanation highlighting difference between neurobiological responses and emotion[edit]

Joseph LeDoux differentiates between the human's defence system, which has evolved over time, and emotions such as fear and anxiety. He has said that the amygdala may release hormones due to a trigger (such as an innate reaction to seeing a snake), but "then we elaborate it through cognitive and conscious processes."[88]

Lisa Feldman Barrett highlights differences in emotions between different cultures,[89] and says that emotions (such as anxiety) "are not triggered; you create them. They emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment."[90] She has termed this approach the theory of constructed emotion.

Disciplinary approaches[edit]

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[91] an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.

In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making.

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

History[edit]

The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars[who?] arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and the constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural, or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science, or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules; thus historically variable and open to change.[92] Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain,[93] Sweden, and Australia.

Furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma.

Sociology[edit]

A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (for example, smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues.[11] One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009).[94][95] Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant.

Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities. The expression of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women to a greater extent than in boys and men (the notion being that an angry man has a valid complaint that needs to be rectified, while an angry women is hysterical or oversensitive, and her anger is somehow invalid), while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women (attitudes implicit in phrases like "man up" or "don't be a sissy").[96][97] Expectations attached to social roles, such as "acting as man" and not as a woman, and the accompanying "feeling rules" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage. In advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism.[citation needed]

Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Émile Durkheim (1915/1965)[98] wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian aborigine society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects.

In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992),[99] pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991)[100] conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990)[101] developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004)[102] formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967)[103][104] into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (for example, Milne & Otieno, 2007;[105] Olitsky, 2007;[106] Tobin, et al., 2013;[107] Zembylas, 2002[108]). These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate.

Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of 6 other categories (Turner, 2009) including:

  1. evolutionary/biological theories,
  2. symbolic interactionist theories,
  3. dramaturgical theories,
  4. ritual theories,
  5. power and status theories,
  6. stratification theories, and
  7. exchange theories.

This list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.

[109] [110] [111]

Psychotherapy and regulation[edit]

Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience.[112] For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.).[113] Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion,[114] different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).[115]

Cross-cultural research[edit]

Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific.[116] In strategic settings, cross-cultural research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors. This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.[117]

Computer science[edit]

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.[118] In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.[119] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[65] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper[120] on affective computing.[121][122] Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. The pioneer F-M Facial Action Coding System 2.0 (F-M FACS 2.0) [123] was created in 2017 by Dr. Freitas-Magalhães, and presents about 2,000 segments in 4K, using 3D technology and automatic and real-time recognition.

Notable theorists[edit]

In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.[124]

Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the Affect theory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life.[125]

Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions;[126] Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion;[127] Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986); Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017), an Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist, neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience.

Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists:

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Panksepp, Jaak (2005). Affective neuroscience : the foundations of human and animal emotions ([Reprint] ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-509673-6. Our emotional feelings reflect our ability to subjectively experience certain states of the nervous system. Although conscious feeling states are universally accepted as major distinguishing characteristics of human emotions, in animal research the issue of whether other organisms feel emotions is little more than a conceptual embarrassment
  2. ^ Damasio AR (May 1998). "Emotion in the perspective of an integrated nervous system". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 26 (2–3): 83–86. doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(97)00064-7. PMID 9651488.
  3. ^ Davidson, edited by Paul Ekman, Richard J. (1994). The Nature of emotion : fundamental questions. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 291–93. ISBN 978-0195089448. Emotional processing, but not emotions, can occur unconsciously.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Cabanac, Michel (2002). "What is emotion?" Behavioural Processes 60(2): 69-83. "[E]motion is any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content (pleasure/displeasure)."
  5. ^ a b Scirst=Daniel L. (2011). Psychology Second Edition. 41 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10010: Worth Publishers. p. 310. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
  6. ^ "Theories of Emotion". Psychology.about.com. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  7. ^ Wilson TD, Dunn EW (February 2004). "Self-knowledge: its limits, value, and potential for improvement". Annual Review of Psychology. 55 (1): 493–518. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141954. PMID 14744224.
  8. ^ Barrett LF, Mesquita B, Ochsner KN, Gross JJ (January 2007). "The experience of emotion". Annual Review of Psychology. 58 (1): 373–403. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085709. PMC 1934613. PMID 17002554.
  9. ^ a b c d Gaulin, Steven J.C. and Donald H. McBurney. Evolutionary Psychology. Prentice Hall. 2003. ISBN 978-0-13-111529-3, Chapter 6, p 121-142.
  10. ^ Barrett LF, Russell JA (2015). The psychological construction of emotion. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1462516971.
  11. ^ a b Thoits PA (1989). "The sociology of emotions". Annual Review of Sociology. 15: 317–42. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.15.1.317.
  12. ^ Cacioppo, J.T & Gardner, W.L (1999). Emotion. "Annual Review of Psychology", 191.
  13. ^ Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.T., Wegner, D.M., & Hood, B.M. (2011). Psychology (European ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  14. ^ Pinker, Steven (1997), How the Mind Works, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, p. 342
  15. ^ Dixon, Thomas. From passions to emotions: the creation of a secular psychological category. Cambridge University Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0521026697. link.
  16. ^ a b Smith TW (2015). The Book of Human Emotions. Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 4–7. ISBN 9780316265409.
  17. ^ Merriam-Webster (2004). The Merriam-Webster dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, MA: Author.
  18. ^ a b Fehr B, Russell JA (1984). "Concept of Emotion Viewed from a Prototype Perspective". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 113 (3): 464–86. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.113.3.464.
  19. ^ Russell JA (November 1991). "Culture and the categorization of emotions". Psychological Bulletin. 110 (3): 426–50. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426. PMID 1758918.
  20. ^ Wierzbicka, Anna. Emotions across languages and cultures: diversity and universals. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
  21. ^ Taylor, Graeme J. "Alexithymia: concept, measurement, and implications for treatment." The American Journal of Psychiatry (1984).
  22. ^ "Emotion | Definition of emotion in English by Oxford Dictionaries".
  23. ^ Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.T., Wegner, D.M., & Hood, B.M. (2011). Psychology (European ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  24. ^ "Emotion". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018.
  25. ^ Graham MC (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5.
  26. ^ Graham MC (2014). Facts of Life: Ten Issues of Contentment. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5.
  27. ^ a b Fox 2008, pp. 16–17.
  28. ^ Graham MC (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5.
  29. ^ a b Hume, D. Emotions and Moods. Organizational Behavior, 258-297.
  30. ^ "On Fear, Emotions, and Memory: An Interview with Dr. Joseph LeDoux » Page 2 of 2 » Brain World". 2018-06-06.
  31. ^ How Emotions Are Made, 2017, Introduction
  32. ^ Scherer KR (2005). "What are emotions? And how can they be measured?". Social Science Information. 44 (4): 693–727. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216.
  33. ^ Ekman P (1992). "An argument for basic emotions" (PDF). Cognition & Emotion. 6 (3): 169–200. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.1984. doi:10.1080/02699939208411068. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
  34. ^ Some people regard mental illnesses as having evolutionary value, see e.g. Evolutionary approaches to depression.
  35. ^ Plutchik, Robert (16 September 1991). "The Emotions". University Press of America. p. 110. Retrieved 16 September 2017 – via Google Books.
  36. ^ Schwarz, N.H. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 2, 527-561.
  37. ^ Alan S. Cowen and Dacher Keltner (2018-04-01). "Clarifying the Conceptualization, Dimensionality, and Structure of Emotion". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 22: 274–276. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.003. Retrieved 2019-02-02.
  38. ^ a b Handel S (2011-05-24). "Classification of Emotions". Retrieved 30 April 2012.
  39. ^ Ekman P, Cordaro DT (2011). "What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion review". 3 (4): 364–70.
  40. ^ Cordaro DT, Keltner D, Tshering S, Wangchuk D, Flynn LM (2016). "The voice conveys emotion in ten globalized cultures and one remote village in Bhutan". 16 (1): 117.
  41. ^ Cordaro DT, Sun R, Keltner D, Kamble S, Huddar N, McNeil G (2017). "Universals and cultural variations in 22 emotional expressions across five cultures".
  42. ^ Keltner; Oatley; Jenkins. "Understanding emotions. Blackwell publishing".
  43. ^ "LNCS 7403 – The Hourglass of Emotions" (PDF). Sentic.net. Retrieved 2017-05-28.
  44. ^ Plutchik R (2002). "Nature of emotions". American Scientist. 89 (4): 349. doi:10.1511/2001.28.739.
  45. ^ Osgood, Charles Egerton; Suci, George J.; Tannenbaum, Percy H. (1957). The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana, Illinois, USA: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-74539-3.
  46. ^ Schacter DL (2011). Psychology Ed. 2. 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
  47. ^ Russell JA, Barrett LF (May 1999). "Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 76 (5): 805–19. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805. PMID 10353204.
  48. ^ Russell JA (January 2003). "Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion" (PDF). Psychological Review. 110 (1): 145–72. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.320.6245. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145. PMID 12529060.[permanent dead link]
  49. ^ Alan S. Cowen and Dacher Keltner (2017-09-05). "Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114: E7900–E7909. doi:10.1073/pnas.1702247114. Retrieved 2017-09-11.
  50. ^ Alan S. Cowen; Hillary Anger Elfenbein; Petri Laukka; Dacher Keltner. "Mapping 24 emotions conveyed by brief human vocalization". American Psychologist. doi:10.1037/amp0000399. Retrieved 2019-02-02.
  51. ^ Alan S. Cowen and Dacher Keltner (2017-09-05). "Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114: E7900–E7909. doi:10.1073/pnas.1702247114. Retrieved 2017-09-11.
  52. ^ https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html
  53. ^ Suchy Y (2011). Clinical neuropsychology of emotion. New York, NY: Guilford.
  54. ^ Haque A (2004). "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists". Journal of Religion and Health. 43 (4): 357–77. doi:10.2307/27512819 (inactive 2018-11-19). JSTOR 27512819.
  55. ^ Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Book 2. Chapter 6.
  56. ^ Aquinas T. Summa Theologica. Q.59, Art.2.
  57. ^ See for instance Antonio Damasio (2005) Looking for Spinoza.
  58. ^ Leviathan (1651), VI: Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Notions, Commonly called the Passions; and the Speeches by which They are Expressed
  59. ^ Darwin, Charles (1872). The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Note: This book was originally published in 1872, but has been reprinted many times thereafter by different publishers
  60. ^ Wright, Robert. Moral animal.
  61. ^ Cacioppo JT (1998). "Somatic responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis". Advances in Psychological Science. 2: 87–114.
  62. ^ Aziz-Zadeh L, Damasio A (2008). "Embodied semantics for actions: findings from functional brain imaging". Journal of Physiology, Paris. 102 (1–3): 35–9. doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2008.03.012. PMID 18472250.
  63. ^ LeDoux J.E. (1996) The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  64. ^ McIntosh DN, Zajonc RB, Vig PB, Emerick SW (1997). "Facial movement, breathing, temperature, and affect: Implications of the vascular theory of emotional efference". Cognition & Emotion. 11 (2): 171–95. doi:10.1080/026999397379980.
  65. ^ a b c James W (1884). "What Is an Emotion?". Mind. 9 (34): 188–205. doi:10.1093/mind/os-ix.34.188.
  66. ^ Carlson N (January 22, 2012). Physiology of Behavior. Emotion. 11th edition. Pearson. p. 388. ISBN 978-0205239399.
  67. ^ Laird, James, Feelings: the Perception of Self, Oxford University Press
  68. ^ Reisenzein R (1995). "James and the physical basis of emotion: A comment on Ellsworth". Psychological Review. 102 (4): 757–61. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.4.757.
  69. ^ Dalgleish T (2004). "The emotional brain". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 5: 582–89.
  70. ^ Carlson N (January 22, 2012). Physiology of Behavior. Emotion. 11th edition. Pearson. p. 389. ISBN 978-0205239399.
  71. ^ a b Cannon WB (1929). "Organization for Physiological Homeostasis". Physiological Reviews. 9 (3): 399–421. doi:10.1152/physrev.1929.9.3.399.
  72. ^ Cannon WB (1927). "The James-Lange theory of emotion: A critical examination and an alternative theory". The American Journal of Psychology. 39: 106–24. doi:10.2307/1415404. JSTOR 1415404.
  73. ^ Daniel L. Schacter, Daniel T. Gilbert, Daniel M. Wegner (2011). Psychology. Worth Publishers.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  74. ^ see the Heuristic–Systematic Model, or HSM, (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989) under attitude change. Also see the index entry for "Emotion" in "Beyond Rationality: The Search for Wisdom in a Troubled Time" by Kenneth R. Hammond and in "Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets" by Nassim Nicholas Taleb.
  75. ^ Griffiths, Paul Edmund and Scarantino, Andrea (2005) Emotions in the wild: The situated perspective on emotion.
  76. ^ a b Givens DB. "Emotion". Center for Nonverbal Studies. Archived from the original on 23 May 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  77. ^ Lövheim H (February 2012). "A new three-dimensional model for emotions and monoamine neurotransmitters". Medical Hypotheses. 78 (2): 341–48. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2011.11.016. PMID 22153577.
  78. ^ Kringelbach ML, O'Doherty J, Rolls ET, Andrews C (October 2003). "Activation of the human orbitofrontal cortex to a liquid food stimulus is correlated with its subjective pleasantness". Cerebral Cortex. 13 (10): 1064–71. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.67.541. doi:10.1093/cercor/13.10.1064. PMID 12967923.
  79. ^ Drake RA (1987). "Effects of gaze manipulation on aesthetic judgments: Hemisphere priming of affect". Acta Psychologica. 65 (2): 91–99. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(87)90020-5.
  80. ^ Merckelbach H, van Oppen P (March 1989). "Effects of gaze manipulation on subjective evaluation of neutral and phobia-relevant stimuli. A comment on Drake's (1987) 'Effects of Gaze Manipulation on Aesthetic Judgments: Hemisphere Priming of Affect'". Acta Psychologica. 70 (2): 147–51. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(89)90017-6. PMID 2741709.
  81. ^ Harmon-Jones E, Vaughn-Scott K, Mohr S, Sigelman J, Harmon-Jones C (March 2004). "The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortical activity". Emotion. 4 (1): 95–101. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.4.1.95. PMID 15053729.
  82. ^ Schmidt LA (1999). "Frontal brain electrical activity in shyness and sociability". Psychological Science. 10 (4): 316–20. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00161.
  83. ^ Táborský I, Dolník V (September 1977). "Physico-chemical properties of interferon produced by a mixed leukocyte suspension". Acta Virologica. 21 (5): 359–64. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.14.8301. PMC 22229. PMID 10393989.
  84. ^ Drake RA, Myers LR (2006). "Visual attention, emotion, and action tendency: Feeling active or passive". Cognition and Emotion. 20 (5): 608–22. doi:10.1080/02699930500368105.
  85. ^ Wacker J, Chavanon ML, Leue A, Stemmler G (April 2008). "Is running away right? The behavioral activation-behavioral inhibition model of anterior asymmetry". Emotion. 8 (2): 232–49. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.232. PMID 18410197.
  86. ^ Craig AD (August 2003). "Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body" (PDF). Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 13 (4): 500–55. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00090-4. PMID 12965300.
  87. ^ Denton DA, McKinley MJ, Farrell M, Egan GF (June 2009). "The role of primordial emotions in the evolutionary origin of consciousness". Consciousness and Cognition. 18 (2): 500–14. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.06.009. PMID 18701321.
  88. ^ "On Fear, Emotions, and Memory: An Interview with Dr. Joseph LeDoux » Page 2 of 2 » Brain World". 2018-06-06.
  89. ^ See also emotions and culture
  90. ^ How Emotions Are Made, 2017, Introduction
  91. ^ "EmoNet". Uq.edu.au. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  92. ^ "History of Emotions | Max Planck Institute for Human Development". Mpib-berlin.mpg.de. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  93. ^ "Cultura Emocional E Identidad". unav.edu. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  94. ^ Turner, J.H. (2007). Human emotions: A sociological theory. London: Routledge.
  95. ^ Turner JH (2009). "The sociology of emotion: Basic Theoretical arguments". Emotion Review. 1 (4): 340–54. doi:10.1177/1754073909338305.
  96. ^ Blair, Elaine (2018-09-27). "The Power of Enraged Women". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
  97. ^ Jamison, Leslie (2018-01-17). "I Used to Insist I Didn't Get Angry. Not Anymore". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
  98. ^ Durkheim, E. (1915/1912). The elementary forms of the religious life, trans. J.W. Swain. New York: Free Press.
  99. ^ Cooley, C.H. (1992). Human nature and the social order. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
  100. ^ Retzinger, S.M. (1991). Violent emotions: Shame and rage in marital quarrels. London: SAGE.
  101. ^ Scheff, J. (1990). Microsociology: discourse, emotion and social structure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  102. ^ Collins, R. (2004). Interaction ritual chains. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  103. ^ Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual. New York: Anchor Books.
  104. ^ Goffman, E. (1964/2013). Encounters: Two studies in the sociology of interactions. Mansfiled Centre, CT: Martino Publishing.
  105. ^ Milne C, Otieno T (2007). "Understanding engagement: Science demonstrations and emotional energy". Science Education. 91: 532–53. doi:10.1002/sce (inactive 2018-11-19).
  106. ^ Olitsky, S. (2007). Science learning, status and identity formation in an urban middle school. In W.-M. Roth & K.G. Tobin (Eds.), Science, learning, identity: Sociocultural and cultural-historical perspectives. (pp. 41-62). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
  107. ^ Tobin K, Ritchie SM, Oakley J, Mergard V, Hudson P (2013). "Relationships between emotional climate and the fluency of classroom interactions". Learning Environments Research. 16: 71–89. doi:10.1007/s10984-013-9125-y.
  108. ^ Zembylas M (2002). "Constructing genealogies of teachers' emotions in science teaching". Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 39: 79–103. doi:10.1002/tea.10010.
  109. ^ Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG, Copp A, Mishkin M (February 2005). "FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 6 (2): 131–38. doi:10.1038/nrn1605. PMID 15685218.
  110. ^ Enard W, Khaitovich P, Klose J, Zöllner S, Heissig F, Giavalisco P, Nieselt-Struwe K, Muchmore E, Varki A, Ravid R, Doxiadis GM, Bontrop RE, Pääbo S (April 2002). "Intra- and interspecific variation in primate gene expression patterns". Science. 296 (5566): 340–43. doi:10.1126/science.1068996. PMID 11951044.
  111. ^ Hammock EA, Young LJ (June 2005). "Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits". Science. 308 (5728): 1630–34. doi:10.1126/science.1111427. PMID 15947188.
  112. ^ Schacter, Daniel. "Psychology". Worth Publishers. 2011. p.316
  113. ^ Schacter, Daniel. "Psychology". Worth Publishers. 2011. p.340
  114. ^ Freitas-Magalhães, A., & Castro, E. (2009). Facial Expression: The effect of the smile in the Treatment of Depression. Empirical Study with Portuguese Subjects. In A. Freitas-Magalhães (Ed.), Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face (pp. 127–40). Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4
  115. ^ "On Emotion – an article from Manchester Gestalt Centre website". 123webpages.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  116. ^ Shaver, Phillip R.; Wu, Shelley; Schwartz, Judith C. Cross-cultural similarities and differences in emotion and its representation In: Clark, Margaret S. (Ed), (1992). Emotion. Review of personality and social psychology, No. 13., (pp. 175-212). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc, ix, 326 pp
  117. ^ North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Nato Standardization Agency AAP-6 - Glossary of terms and definitions, p 188.
  118. ^ Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002
  119. ^ Tao J, Tan T (2005). "Affective Computing: A Review". Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction; LNCS. 3784. Springer. pp. 981–95. doi:10.1007/11573548.
  120. ^ "Affective Computing" MIT Technical Report #321 (Abstract), 1995
  121. ^ Kleine-Cosack C (October 2006). "Recognition and Simulation of Emotions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008. The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard (sic) who created the field of affective computing.
  122. ^ Diamond D (December 2003). "The Love Machine; Building computers that care". Wired. Retrieved 13 May 2008. Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the field's godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users.
  123. ^ Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2017). Facial Action Coding System 2.0: Manual of Scientific Codification of the Human Face. Porto: FEELab Science Books. ISBN 978-989-8766-86-1.
  124. ^ Cherry K. "What Is the James-Lange Theory of Emotion?". Retrieved 30 April 2012.
  125. ^ The Tomkins Institute. "Applied Studies in Motivation, Emotion, and Cognition". Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
  126. ^ Reisenzein, R (2006). "Arnolds theory of emotion in historical perspective". Cognition & Emotion. 20 (7): 920–51. doi:10.1080/02699930600616445. hdl:20.500.11780/598.
  127. ^ Plutchik, R (1982). "A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions". Social Science Information. 21 (4–5): 529–53. doi:10.1177/053901882021004003.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]