Multiplicative group of integers modulo n

In modular arithmetic, the integers coprime (relatively prime) to n from the set $\{0,1,\dots ,n-1\}$ of n non-negative integers form a group under multiplication modulo n, called the multiplicative group of integers modulo n. Equivalently, the elements of this group can be thought of as the congruence classes, also known as residues modulo n, that are coprime to n. Hence another name is the group of primitive residue classes modulo n. In the theory of rings, a branch of abstract algebra, it is described as the group of units of the ring of integers modulo n. Here units refers to elements with a multiplicative inverse, which in this ring are exactly those coprime to n.

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This group, usually denoted $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$, is fundamental in number theory. It has found applications in cryptography, integer factorization, and primality testing. It is an abelian, finite group whose order is given by Euler's totient function: $|(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }|=\varphi (n).$ For prime n the group is cyclic and in general the structure is easy to describe, though even for prime n no general formula for finding generators is known.

Group axioms

It is a straightforward exercise to show that, under multiplication, the set of congruence classes modulo n that are coprime to n satisfy the axioms for an abelian group.

Indeed, a is coprime to n if and only if gcd(a, n)=1. Integers in the same congruence class a ≡ b (mod n) satisfy gcd(a, n) = gcd(b, n), hence one is coprime to n if and only if the other is. Thus the notion of congruence classes modulo n that are coprime to n is well-defined.

Since gcd(a, n) = 1 and gcd(b, n) = 1 implies gcd(ab, n) = 1, the set of classes coprime to n is closed under multiplication.

Integer multiplication respects the congruence classes, that is, a ≡ a' and b ≡ b' (mod n) implies ab ≡ a'b' (mod n). This implies that the multiplication is associative, commutative, and that the class of 1 is the unique multiplicative identity.

Finally, given a, the multiplicative inverse of a modulo n is an integer x satisfying ax ≡ 1 (mod n). It exists precisely when a is coprime to n, because in that case gcd(a, n) = 1 and by Bézout's lemma there are integers x and y satisfying ax + ny = 1.

Notation

The set of (congruence classes of) integers modulo n with the operations of addition and multiplication is a ring. It is denoted $\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z}$  or  $\mathbb {Z} /(n)$  (the notation refers to taking the quotient of integers modulo the ideal $n\mathbb {Z}$ or $(n)$ consisting of the multiples of n). Outside of number theory the simpler notation $\mathbb {Z} _{n}$ is often used, though it can be confused with the p-adic integers when n is a prime number.

The multiplicative group of integers modulo n, which is the group of units in this ring, may be written as (depending on the author) $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times },$   $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{*},$   $\mathrm {U} (\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} ),$   $\mathrm {E} (\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )$   (for German Einheit, which translates as unit), $\mathbb {Z} _{n}^{*}$, or similar notations. This article uses $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }.$

The notation $\mathrm {C} _{n}$ refers to the cyclic group of order n. It is isomorphic to the group of integer modulo n under addition. Note that $\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z}$ or $\mathbb {Z} _{n}$ may also refer to the group under addition. For example, the multiplicative group $(\mathbb {Z} /p\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ for a prime p is cyclic and hence isomorphic to the additive group $\mathbb {Z} /(p-1)\mathbb {Z}$, but the isomorphism is not obvious.

Structure

The order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n is the number of integers in $\{0,1,\dots ,n-1\}$ coprime to n. It is given by Euler's totient function: $|(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }|=\varphi (n)$ (sequence A000010 in the OEIS). For prime p, $\varphi (p)=p-1$.

Cyclic case

Main article: primitive root modulo n

The group $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is cyclic if and only if n is 1, 2, 4, p^k or 2p^k, where p is an odd prime and k > 0. For all other values of n the group is not cyclic. This was first proved by Gauss.

This means that for these n:

$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{\varphi (n)},$ where $\phi (p^{k})=\phi (2p^{k})=p^{k}-p^{k-1}.$

By definition, the group is cyclic if and only if it has a generator g, that is, the powers $g^{0},g^{1},g^{2},\dots ,$ give all possible residues modulo n coprime to n (the first $\phi (n)$ powers $g^{0},\dots ,g^{\phi (n)-1}$ give each exactly once). A generator of $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is called a primitive root modulo n. If there is any generator, then there are $\phi (\phi (n))$ of them.

Powers of 2

Modulo 1 any two integers are congruent, i.e., there is only one congruence class, [0], coprime to 1. Therefore, $(\mathbb {Z} /1\,\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{1}$ is the trivial group with φ(1) = 1 element. Because of its trivial nature, the case of congruences modulo 1 is generally ignored and some authors choose not to include the case of n = 1 in theorem statements.

Modulo 2 there is only one coprime congruence class, [1], so $(\mathbb {Z} /2\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{1}$ is the trivial group.

Modulo 4 there are two coprime congruence classes, [1] and [3], so $(\mathbb {Z} /4\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{2},$ the cyclic group with two elements.

Modulo 8 there are four coprime congruence classes, [1], [3], [5] and [7]. The square of each of these is 1, so $(\mathbb {Z} /8\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{2}\times \mathrm {C} _{2},$ the Klein four-group.

Modulo 16 there are eight coprime congruence classes [1], [3], [5], [7], [9], [11], [13] and [15]. $\{\pm 1,\pm 7\}\cong \mathrm {C} _{2}\times \mathrm {C} _{2},$ is the 2-torsion subgroup (i.e., the square of each element is 1), so $(\mathbb {Z} /16\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is not cyclic. The powers of 3, $\{1,3,9,11\}$ are a subgroup of order 4, as are the powers of 5, $\{1,5,9,13\}.$   Thus $(\mathbb {Z} /16\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{2}\times \mathrm {C} _{4}.$

The pattern shown by 8 and 16 holds for higher powers 2^k, k > 2: $\{\pm 1,2^{k-1}\pm 1\}\cong \mathrm {C} _{2}\times \mathrm {C} _{2},$ is the 2-torsion subgroup (so $(\mathbb {Z} /2^{k}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is not cyclic) and the powers of 3 are a cyclic subgroup of order 2^{k − 2}, so $(\mathbb {Z} /2^{k}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong \mathrm {C} _{2}\times \mathrm {C} _{2^{k-2}}.$

General composite numbers

By the fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups, the group $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups of prime orders.

More specifically, the Chinese remainder theorem says that if $\;\;n=p_{1}^{k_{1}}p_{2}^{k_{2}}p_{3}^{k_{3}}\dots ,\;$ then the ring $\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z}$ is the direct product of the rings corresponding to each of its prime power factors:

$\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} \cong \mathbb {Z} /{p_{1}^{k_{1}}}\mathbb {Z} \;\times \;\mathbb {Z} /{p_{2}^{k_{2}}}\mathbb {Z} \;\times \;\mathbb {Z} /{p_{3}^{k_{3}}}\mathbb {Z} \dots \;\;$

Similarly, the group of units $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is the direct product of the groups corresponding to each of the prime power factors:

$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\cong (\mathbb {Z} /{p_{1}^{k_{1}}}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\times (\mathbb {Z} /{p_{2}^{k_{2}}}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\times (\mathbb {Z} /{p_{3}^{k_{3}}}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }\dots \;.$

For each odd prime power $p^{k}$ the corresponding factor $(\mathbb {Z} /{p^{k}}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is the cyclic group of order $\phi (p^{k})=p^{k}-p^{k-1}$, which may further factor into cyclic groups of prime-power orders. For powers of 2 the factor $(\mathbb {Z} /{2^{k}}\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is not cyclic unless k = 0,1,2, but factors into cyclic groups as described above.

The order of the group $\phi (n)$ is the product of the orders of the cyclic groups in the direct product. The exponent of the group, that is, the least common multiple of the orders in the cyclic groups, is given by the Carmichael function $\lambda (n)$ (sequence A002322 in the OEIS). In other words, $\lambda (n)$ is the smallest number such that for each a coprime to n, $a^{\lambda (n)}\equiv 1{\pmod {n}}$ holds. It divides $\phi (n)$ and is equal to it if and only if the group is cyclic.

Subgroup of false witnesses

If n is composite, there exists a subgroup of the multiplicative group, called the "group of false witnesses", in which the elements, when raised to the power n − 1, are congruent to 1 modulo n (since the residue 1, to any power, is congruent to 1 modulo n, the set of such elements is nonempty). One could say, because of Fermat's Little Theorem, that such residues are "false positives" or "false witnesses" for the primality of n. 2 is the residue most often used in this basic primality check, hence 341 = 11 × 31 is famous since 2³⁴⁰ is congruent to 1 modulo 341, and 341 is the smallest such composite number (with respect to 2). For 341, the false witnesses subgroup contains 100 residues and so is of index 3 inside the 300 element multiplicative group mod 341.

Examples

n = 9

The smallest example with a nontrivial subgroup of false witnesses is 9 = 3 × 3. There are 6 residues coprime to 9: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8. Since 8 is congruent to −1 modulo 9, it follows that 8⁸ is congruent to 1 modulo 9. So 1 and 8 are false positives for the "primality" of 9 (since 9 is not actually prime). These are in fact the only ones, so the subgroup {1,8} is the subgroup of false witnesses. The same argument shows that n − 1 is a "false witness" for any odd composite n.

n = 91

For n = 91 (= 7 x 13), there are $\varphi (91)=72$ residues coprime to 91, half of them (i.e., 36 of them) are false witnesses of 91, namely 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 51, 53, 55, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, and 90, since for these xs, x⁹⁰ is congruent to 1 mod 91.

n = 561

n = 561 (= 3 x 11 x 17) is a Carmichael number, thus s⁵⁶⁰ is congruent to 1 modulo 561 for any integer s coprime to 561. The subgroup of false witnesses is, in this case, not proper; it is the entire group of multiplicative units modulo 561, which consists of 320 residues.

Examples

This table shows the cyclic decomposition of $(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ and a generating set for n ≤ 128. The generating sets are not unique; e.g., modulo 16 both {15, 3} and {15, 5} will work, in the list, we list the smallest values, (thus, for n with primitive root, we list the smallest primitive root modulo n) for example, for modulo 12, we list {5, 7} instead of {5, 11} or {7, 11} .

For example, we take n = 20. $\varphi (20)=8$ means that the order of $(\mathbb {Z} /20\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is 8 (i.e., there are 8 numbers less than 20 and coprime to it); $\lambda (20)=4$ that the fourth power of any number coprime to 20 is congruent to 1 (mod 20); and as for the generators, 19 has order 2, 3 has order 4, and every member of $(\mathbb {Z} /20\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is of the form 19^a × 3^b, where a is 0 or 1 and b is 0, 1, 2, or 3.

The powers of 19 are {±1} and the powers of 3 are {3, 9, 7, 1}. The latter and their negatives modulo 20, {17, 11, 13, 19} are all the numbers less than 20 and coprime to it. That the order of 19 is 2 and the order of 3 is 4 implies that the fourth power of every member of $(\mathbb {Z} /20\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$ is congruent to 1 (mod 20).

Smallest primitive root mod n are (0 if no root exists)

0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 5, 3, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0, 3, 5, 2, 0, 0, 7, 5, 0, 2, 7, 2, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0, 6, 0, 3, 0, 0, 5, 5, 0, 3, 3, 0, 0, 2, 5, 0, 0, 0, 3, 2, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 7, 0, 5, 5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 2, 7, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, ... (sequence A046145 in the OEIS)

Numbers of the elements in a minimal generating set of mod n are

0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, ... (sequence A046072 in the OEIS)

Group structure of (Z/nZ)^×

$n\;$	$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$	$\varphi (n)$	$\lambda (n)\;$	Generating set		$n\;$	$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$	$\varphi (n)$	$\lambda (n)\;$	Generating set		$n\;$	$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$	$\varphi (n)$	$\lambda (n)\;$	Generating set		$n\;$	$(\mathbb {Z} /n\mathbb {Z} )^{\times }$	$\varphi (n)$	$\lambda (n)\;$	Generating set
1	C1	1	1	0		33	C2×C10	20	10	2, 10		65	C4×C12	48	12	2, 12		97	C96	96	96	5
2	C1	1	1	1		34	C16	16	16	3		66	C2×C10	20	10	5, 7		98	C42	42	42	3
3	C2	2	2	2		35	C2×C12	24	12	2, 6		67	C66	66	66	2		99	C2×C30	60	30	2, 5
4	C2	2	2	3		36	C2×C6	12	6	5, 19		68	C2×C16	32	16	3, 67		100	C2×C20	40	20	3, 99
5	C4	4	4	2		37	C36	36	36	2		69	C2×C22	44	22	2, 68		101	C100	100	100	2
6	C2	2	2	5		38	C18	18	18	3		70	C2×C12	24	12	3, 69		102	C2×C16	32	16	5, 101
7	C6	6	6	3		39	C2×C12	24	12	2, 38		71	C70	70	70	7		103	C102	102	102	5
8	C2×C2	4	2	3, 5		40	C2×C2×C4	16	4	3, 11, 39		72	C2×C2×C6	24	6	5, 17, 19		104	C2×C2×C12	48	12	3, 5, 103
9	C6	6	6	2		41	C40	40	40	6		73	C72	72	72	5		105	C2×C2×C12	48	12	2, 29, 41
10	C4	4	4	3		42	C2×C6	12	6	5, 13		74	C36	36	36	5		106	C52	52	52	3
11	C10	10	10	2		43	C42	42	42	3		75	C2×C20	40	20	2, 74		107	C106	106	106	2
12	C2×C2	4	2	5, 7		44	C2×C10	20	10	3, 43		76	C2×C18	36	18	3, 37		108	C2×C18	36	18	5, 107
13	C12	12	12	2		45	C2×C12	24	12	2, 44		77	C2×C30	60	30	2, 76		109	C108	108	108	6
14	C6	6	6	3		46	C22	22	22	5		78	C2×C12	24	12	5, 7		110	C2×C20	40	20	3, 109
15	C2×C4	8	4	2, 14		47	C46	46	46	5		79	C78	78	78	3		111	C2×C36	72	36	2, 110
16	C2×C4	8	4	3, 15		48	C2×C2×C4	16	4	5, 7, 47		80	C2×C4×C4	32	4	3, 7, 79		112	C2×C2×C12	48	12	3, 5, 111
17	C16	16	16	3		49	C42	42	42	3		81	C54	54	54	2		113	C112	112	112	3
18	C6	6	6	5		50	C20	20	20	3		82	C40	40	40	7		114	C2×C18	36	18	5, 37
19	C18	18	18	2		51	C2×C16	32	16	5, 50		83	C82	82	82	2		115	C2×C44	88	44	2, 114
20	C2×C4	8	4	3, 19		52	C2×C12	24	12	7, 51		84	C2×C2×C6	24	6	5, 11, 13		116	C2×C28	56	28	3, 115
21	C2×C6	12	6	2, 20		53	C52	52	52	2		85	C4×C16	64	16	2, 3		117	C6×C12	72	12	2, 17
22	C10	10	10	7		54	C18	18	18	5		86	C42	42	42	3		118	C58	58	58	11
23	C22	22	22	5		55	C2×C20	40	20	2, 21		87	C2×C28	56	28	2, 86		119	C2×C48	96	48	3, 118
24	C2×C2×C2	8	2	5, 7, 13		56	C2×C2×C6	24	6	3, 13, 29		88	C2×C2×C10	40	10	3, 5, 7		120	C2×C2×C2×C4	32	4	7, 11, 19, 29
25	C20	20	20	2		57	C2×C18	36	18	2, 20		89	C88	88	88	3		121	C110	110	110	2
26	C12	12	12	7		58	C28	28	28	3		90	C2×C12	24	12	7, 11		122	C60	60	60	7
27	C18	18	18	2		59	C58	58	58	2		91	C6×C12	72	12	2, 3		123	C2×C40	80	40	7, 83
28	C2×C6	12	6	3, 13		60	C2×C2×C4	16	4	7, 11, 19		92	C2×C22	44	22	3, 91		124	C2×C30	60	30	3, 61
29	C28	28	28	2		61	C60	60	60	2		93	C2×C30	60	30	11, 61		125	C100	100	100	2
30	C2×C4	8	4	7, 11		62	C30	30	30	3		94	C46	46	46	5		126	C6×C6	36	6	5, 13
31	C30	30	30	3		63	C6×C6	36	6	2, 5		95	C2×C36	72	36	2, 94		127	C126	126	126	3
32	C2×C8	16	8	3, 31		64	C2×C16	32	16	3, 63		96	C2×C2×C8	32	8	5, 17, 31		128	C2×C32	64	32	3, 127

See also

• Lenstra elliptic curve factorization

References

The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae has been translated from Gauss's Ciceronian Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.

• Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Clarke, Arthur A. (translator into English) (1986), Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Second, corrected edition), New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-96254-9
• Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Maser, H. (translator into German) (1965), Untersuchungen uber hohere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithemeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition), New York: Chelsea, ISBN 0-8284-0191-8
• Riesel, Hans (1994), Prime Numbers and Computer Methods for Factorization (second edition), Boston: Birkhäuser, ISBN 0-8176-3743-5
• Vinogradov, I. M. (2003), "§ VI PRIMITIVE ROOTS AND INDICES", Elements of Number Theory, Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, pp. 105–121, ISBN 0-486-49530-2

External links

• Weisstein, Eric W. "Modulo Multiplication Group". MathWorld.
• Weisstein, Eric W. "Primitive Root". MathWorld.
• Web-based tool to interactively compute group tables by John Jones