Isaiah Berlin

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This article is about the 20th-century philosopher. For the 18th-century rabbi, see Isaiah Berlin (rabbi).

Sir Isaiah Berlin

OM CBE FBA
IsaiahBerlin1983.jpg
Born6 June 1909
Riga, Governorate of Livonia, Russian Empire (present-day Latvia)
Died5 November 1997(1997-11-05) (aged 88)
Oxford, England
Alma materCorpus Christi College, Oxford
Era20th-century philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
SchoolAnalytic · Social liberalism[1]
Institutions
Main interests
Political philosophy · Philosophy of history · History of ideas · Ethics · Marxism · Modern history · Russian history · Russian literature · Romanticism
Notable ideas
Negative/positive liberty distinction · Counter-Enlightenment · Value pluralism

Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA (1909–1997) was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas.[4] Although averse to writing, his improvised lectures and talks were recorded and transcribed, with his spoken word being converted by his secretaries into his published essays and books.

Born in Riga, Latvia, in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia, at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family moved to the UK, and he was educated at St Paul's School, London, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford.[5] In 1932, at the age of 23, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. From 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964. In 1966, he played a role in founding Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its first President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957, and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1971. He was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his writings on individual freedom, and on November 25th, 1994, he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws at the University of Toronto, for which occasion he prepared a "short credo" (as he called it in a letter to a friend) known as "A Message to the 21st Century", to be read on his behalf at the ceremony[6].

An annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlin's work on liberal theory and on value pluralism, as well as his opposition to Marxism and communism, has had a lasting influence. In its obituary of the scholar, The Independent stated that:

Isaiah Berlin was often described, especially in his old age, by means of superlatives: the world's greatest talker, the century's most inspired reader, one of the finest minds of our time ... there is no doubt that he showed in more than one direction the unexpectedly large possibilities open to us at the top end of the range of human potential[7][4]

Early life[edit]

Plaque marking what was once Berlin's childhood home (designed by Mikhail Eisenstein) in Riga, engraved in Latvian, English, and Hebrew with the tribute "The British philosopher Sir Isaiah Berlin lived in this house 1909–1915"
The Angliyskaya Embankment in Saint Petersburg, where Berlin lived as a child during the Russian Revolutions

Born 6 June 1909,[citation needed] Berlin was the only surviving child of a wealthy[8] Jewish family, the son of Mendel Berlin, a timber trader and philanthropist (and a direct descendant of Shneur Zalman, founder of Chabad Hasidism), and his wife Marie, née Volshonok. His family owned a timber company, one of the largest in the Baltics,[9] as well as forests in Russia,[10] from where the timber was floated down the Daugava river to its sawmills in Riga. As his father, who was the head of the Riga Association of Timber Merchants,[9] worked for the company in its dealings with Western companies, he was fluent not only in Russian and German, but also French and English. His Russian-speaking mother, Marie Volshonok, was also fluent in Latvian.[11] Isaiah Berlin spent his first six years in Riga, and later lived in Andreapol (a small timber town near Pskov, effectively owned by the family business)[12] and Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg). In Petrograd, the family lived first on Vasilyevsky Island and then on Angliyskaya Embankment on the River Neva. On Angliyskaya Embankment, they shared their building with the other tenants being Rimsky-Korsakov's daughter, as well as an assistant Minister of Finnish affairs, and Princess Emeretinsky - and, with the onset of the October Revolution of 1917, the fortunes of the building's tenants were rapidly reversed, with both the Princess Emeretinsky and Rimsky-Korsakov's daughter soon being made to stoke the building's stoves and sweep the yards.[13] Berlin witnessed the February and October Revolutions both from his apartment windows, and from walks in the city with his governess where he recalled the crowds of protesters marching on the Winter Palace Square.[14]

One particular childhood memory of the February Revolution, marked his life-long opposition to violence, with Berlin saying:

Well I was seven and a half and something, and then I was – did I tell you the terrible sight of the policeman being dragged – not policeman, a sharp shooter from the rooftop – being dragged away by a lynching bee ... In the early parts of the revolution, the only people who remained loyal to the Tsar was the police, the Pharaon, I've never seen [the term] Pharaon in the histories of the Russian Revolution. They existed, and they did sniping from the rooftops or attics. I saw a man like that, a Pharaon.... That's not in the books, but it is true. And they sniped at the revolutionaries from roofs or attics and things. And this man was dragged down, obviously, by a crowd, and was being obviously taken to a not very agreeable fate, and I saw this man struggling in the middle of a crowd of about twenty ... [T]hat gave me a permanent horror of violence which has remained with me for the rest of my life.[15]

Feeling increasingly oppressed by life under Bolshevik rule where the family was identified as bourgeoisie, the family left Petrograd, on 5 October 1920, for Riga, but encounters with anti-Semitism and difficulties with the Latvian authorities convinced them to leave, and they moved to Britain in early 1921 (Mendel in January, Isaiah and Marie at the beginning of February), when Berlin was eleven.[16] In London, the family first stayed in Surbiton where he was sent to Arundel House for preparatory school, then within the year they bought a house in Kensington, and six years later in Hampstead.

Berlin's native language was Russian, and his English was virtually nonexistent at first, but he reached proficiency in English within a year at around the age of 12.[17] In addition to Russian and English, Berlin was fluent in French, German and Italian, and knew Hebrew, Latin, and Ancient Greek. Despite his fluency in English, however, in later life Berlin's Oxford English accent would sound increasingly Russian in its vowel sounds.[18] Whenever he was described as an English philosopher, Berlin always insisted that he was not an English philosopher, but would forever be a Russian Jew: "I am a Russian Jew from Riga, and all my years in England cannot change this. I love England, I have been well treated here, and I cherish many things about English life, but I am a Russian Jew; that is how I was born and that is who I will be to the end of my life."[19][20]

Education[edit]

After being educated at St Paul's School (London), Berlin applied to Balliol College, Oxford, but was denied admission after a chaotic interview. Berlin decided to apply again, only to a different College: Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Berlin was admitted and commenced his Classics (Greats) degree. He graduated in 1928, taking a First in his final examinations and winning The John Locke Prize for his performance in the philosophy papers, in which he outscored A. J. Ayer.[21] He subsequently took another degree at Oxford in PPE (Philosophy, Politics and Economics), winning another First after less than a year on the course. He was appointed a tutor in philosophy at New College, Oxford, and soon afterwards was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, the first unconverted Jew to achieve this fellowship at All Souls.[22]

While still a student, he befriended Ayer (with whom he was to share a lifelong amicable rivalry), Stuart Hampshire, Richard Wollheim, Maurice Bowra, Stephen Spender, Inez Pearn, J. L. Austin and Nicolas Nabokov. In 1940, he presented a philosophical paper on other minds to a meeting attended by Ludwig Wittgenstein at Cambridge University. Wittgenstein rejected the argument of his paper in discussion but praised Berlin for his intellectual honesty and integrity. Berlin was to remain at Oxford for the rest of his life, apart from a period working for British Information Services in New York from 1940 to 1942, and for the British embassies in Washington, DC, and Moscow from then until 1946. Prior to this service, however, Berlin was barred from participation in the British war effort as a result of his being born in Latvia,[23] and because his left arm had been damaged at birth. In April 1943 he wrote a confidential analysis of members of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for the Foreign Office; he described Senator Arthur Capper from Kansas as a solid, stolid, 78-year-old reactionary from the corn belt, who is the very voice of Mid-Western "grass root" isolationism.[24] For his services, he was appointed a CBE in the 1946 New Year Honours.[25] Meetings with Anna Akhmatova in Leningrad in November 1945 and January 1946 had a powerful effect on both of them, and serious repercussions for Akhmatova (who immortalised the meetings in her poetry).[26]

Personal life[edit]

In 1956 Berlin married Aline Halban, née de Gunzbourg (1915–2014) who was the former wife of an Oxford colleague and a former winner of the ladies' golf championship of France. She was from an exiled half Russian-aristocratic and half ennobled-Jewish banking and petroleum family (her mother was Yvonne Deutsch de la Meurthe, granddaughter of Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe) based in Paris.

The Berlin Quadrangle, Wolfson College

He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959.[27] He was instrumental in the founding, in 1966, of a new graduate college at Oxford University: Wolfson College. The college was founded to be a centre of academic excellence which, unlike many other colleges at Oxford, would also be based on a strong egalitarian and democratic ethos.[28] Berlin was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at Oxford University.[29] As later revealed, when he was asked to evaluate the academic credentials of Isaac Deutscher, Isaiah Berlin argued against a promotion, because of the profoundly pro-communist militancy of the candidate.[30]

Berlin died in Oxford on 5 November 1997, aged 88.[4] He is buried there in Wolvercote Cemetery. On his death, the obituarist of The Independent wrote: "he was a man of formidable intellectual power with a rare gift for understanding a wide range of human motives, hopes and fears, and a prodigiously energetic capacity for enjoyment – of life, of people in all their variety, of their ideas and idiosyncrasies, of literature, of music, of art".[7] The front page of The New York Times concluded: "His was an exuberant life crowded with joys – the joy of thought, the joy of music, the joy of good friends. ... The theme that runs throughout his work is his concern with liberty and the dignity of human beings .... Sir Isaiah radiated well-being."[31]

Thought[edit]

Though like Our Lord and Socrates he does not publish much, he thinks and says a great deal and has had an enormous influence on our times

—Maurice Bowra on Isaiah Berlin's publishing record.[32]

Lecturing and composition[edit]

Berlin did not enjoy writing, and his published work (including both his essays and books) was produced by means of conversational dictation to a tape-recorder, or through the transcription of his improvised lectures and talks from recorded tapes. The work of transcribing his spoken word often placed a strain on his secretaries.[33] This method of dictation even extended to his letters, which were produced by speaking to a Grundig tape recorder, often while simultaneously in conversation with his friends, and then transcribed with difficulty by his secretary, who at times would inadvertently include his jokes and laughter into the transcribed text itself.[33] The results are a darting and leaping style of thought, which literally reflected his own conversation, and the ornate grammar and punctuation which was contained in his everyday speech.[33]

"Two Concepts of Liberty"[edit]

Main article: Two Concepts of Liberty

Berlin is popularly known for his essay "Two Concepts of Liberty", delivered in 1958 as his inaugural lecture as Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at Oxford. The essay, with its analytical approach to the definition of political concepts, reintroduced the methods of analytic philosophy to the study of political philosophy. Spurred by his background in philosophy of language, Berlin argued for a nuanced and subtle understanding of our political terminology, where what was superficially understood as a single concept could mask a plurality of different uses and therefore meanings. Berlin argued that these multiple and differing concepts, otherwise masked by rhetorical conflations, showed the plurality and incompatibility of human values, and the need for us to distinguish and trade off analytically between, rather than conflate, them if we are to avoid disguising underlying value-conflicts. The two concepts are 'negative freedom', or freedom from interference, which Berlin derived from the British tradition, and 'positive freedom', or freedom as self-mastery, which asks not what we are free from, but what we are free to do. Berlin points out that these two different conceptions of liberty can clash with each other.

Counter-Enlightenment[edit]

Main article: Counter-Enlightenment
Further information: Three Critics of the Enlightenment

Berlin's lectures on the Enlightenment and its critics (especially Giambattista Vico, Johann Gottfried Herder, Joseph de Maistre and Johann Georg Hamann, to whose views Berlin referred as the Counter-Enlightenment) contributed to his advocacy of an irreducibly pluralist ethical ontology.[1] In Three Critics of the Enlightenment, Berlin argues that Hamann was one of the first thinkers to conceive of human cognition as language – the articulation and use of symbols. Berlin saw Hamann as having recognised as the rationalist's Cartesian fallacy the notion that there are "clear and distinct" ideas "which can be contemplated by a kind of inner eye", without the use of language – a recognition greatly sharpened in the 20th century by Wittgenstein's private language argument.[34]

Value pluralism[edit]

Main article: Value pluralism

For Berlin, values are creations of mankind, rather than products of nature waiting to be discovered. He argued, on the basis of the epistemic and empathetic access we have to other cultures across history, that the nature of mankind is such that certain values – the importance of individual liberty, for instance – will hold true across cultures, and this is what he meant by objective pluralism. Berlin's argument was partly grounded in Wittgenstein's later theory of language, which argued that inter-translatability was supervenient on a similarity in forms of life, with the inverse implication that our epistemic access to other cultures entails an ontologically contiguous value-structure. With his account of value pluralism, he proposed the view that moral values may be equally, or rather incommensurably, valid and yet incompatible, and may, therefore, come into conflict with one another in a way that admits of no resolution without reference to particular contexts of a decision. When values clash, it may not be that one is more important than the other: keeping a promise may conflict with the pursuit of truth; liberty may clash with social justice. Moral conflicts are "an intrinsic, irremovable element in human life". "These collisions of values are of the essence of what they are and what we are."[35] For Berlin, this clashing of incommensurate values within, no less than between, individuals, constitutes the tragedy of human life. Alan Brown suggests, however, that Berlin ignores the fact that values are commensurable in the extent to which they contribute to the human good.[36]

"The Hedgehog and the Fox"[edit]

Main article: The Hedgehog and the Fox

"The Hedgehog and the Fox", a title referring to a fragment of the ancient Greek poet Archilochus, was one of Berlin's most popular essays with the general public, reprinted in numerous editions. Of the classification that gives the essay its title, Berlin once said "I never meant it very seriously. I meant it as a kind of enjoyable intellectual game, but it was taken seriously."[37]

Berlin expands upon this idea to divide writers and thinkers into two categories: hedgehogs, who view the world through the lens of a single defining idea (examples given include Plato), and foxes, who draw on a wide variety of experiences and for whom the world cannot be boiled down to a single idea (examples given include William Shakespeare).

Other work[edit]

Berlin's lecture "Historical Inevitability" (1954) focused on a controversy in the philosophy of history. Given the choice, whether one believes that "the lives of entire peoples and societies have been decisively influenced by exceptional individuals" or, conversely, that whatever happens occurs as a result of impersonal forces oblivious to human intentions, Berlin rejected both options and the choice itself as nonsensical. Berlin is also well known for his writings on Russian intellectual history, most of which are collected in Russian Thinkers (1978; 2nd ed. 2008) and edited, as most of Berlin's work, by Henry Hardy (in the case of this volume, jointly with Aileen Kelly). Berlin also contributed a number of essays on leading intellectuals and political figures of his time, including Winston Churchill, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Chaim Weizmann. Eighteen of these character sketches were published together as "Personal Impressions" (1980; 2nd ed., with four additional essays, 1998; 3rd ed., with a further ten essays, 2014).[38]

Commemoration[edit]

A number of commemorative events for Isaiah Berlin are held at Oxford University, as well as scholarships given out in his name, including the Wolfson Isaiah Berlin Clarendon Scholarship, The Isaiah Berlin Visiting Professorship, and the annual Isaiah Berlin Lectures. The Berlin Quadrangle of Wolfson College, Oxford, is named after him. The Isaiah Berlin Association of Latvia was founded in 2011 to promote the ideas and values of Sir Isaiah Berlin, in particular by organising an annual Isaiah Berlin day and lectures in his memory.[39] At the British Academy, the Isaiah Berlin lecture series has been held since 2001.[40] Many volumes from Berlin's personal library were donated to Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beer Sheva and form part of the Aranne Library collection. The Isaiah Berlin Room, on the third floor of the library, is a replica of his study at the University of Oxford.[41] There is also the Isaiah Berlin Society which takes place at his alma mater of St Paul's School (London). The society invites world famous academics to share their research into the answers to life's great concerns and to respond to students' questions. In the last few years they have hosted: A.C. Grayling, Brad Hooker, Jonathan Dancy, John Cottingham, Tim Crane, Arif Ahmed, Hugh Mellor and David Papineau.[42]

Published works[edit]

Apart from earlier editions of Karl Marx and The Hedgehog and the Fox, and Unfinished Dialogue, all books listed from 1978 onwards are edited (or, where stated, co-edited) by Henry Hardy, and all but Karl Marx are compilations or transcripts of lectures, essays, and letters. Details given are of first and latest UK editions, and current US editions. Most titles are also available as e-books. The 11 titles marked with a '+' are available in the US market in revised editions from Princeton University Press, with additional material by Berlin, and (except in the case of Karl Marx) new forewords by contemporary authors; the 5th edition of Karl Marx is also available in the UK.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Cherniss, Joshua; Hardy, Henry (25 May 2010). "Isaiah Berlin". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
  2. ^ Rosen, Frederick (2005). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge. p. 251. According to Berlin, the most eloquent of all defenders of freedom and privacy [was] Benjamin Constant, who had not forgotten the Jacobin dictatorship
  3. ^ Brockliss, Laurence; Robertson, Ritchie (2016). Isaiah Berlin and the Enlightenment. Oxford University Press. Berlin refers to Diderot and Lessing as 'two of my favorite thinkers in the eighteenth century.'
  4. ^ a b c "Philosopher and political thinker Sir Isaiah Berlin dies". BBC News. 8 November 1997. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
  5. ^ "CONCEPTS AND CATEGORIES - Philosophical Essays" (PDF). Pimlico. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  6. ^ The New York Review of Books, October 23th, 2014, "A Message to the 21st Century", http://www.sjpcommunications.org/images/uploads/documents/Isaiah_Berlin.pdf
  7. ^ a b Hardy, Henry (7 November 1997). "Obituary: Sir Isaiah Berlin". The Independent. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
  8. ^ Isaiah Berlin: IN CONVERSATION WITH STEVEN LUKES, ISAIAH BERLIN and Steven Lukes, Salmagundi,No. 120 (FALL 1998), pp. 52–134
  9. ^ a b "ISAIAH BERLIN:CONNECTION WITH RIGA" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-03-24.
  10. ^ Isaiah Berlin: IN CONVERSATION WITH STEVEN LUKES, ISAIAH BERLIN and Steven Lukes, Salmagundi,No. 120 (FALL 1998), pp. 52-134
  11. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 30
  12. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 21
  13. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 26
  14. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 24
  15. ^ Isaiah Berlin and the Policeman Posted on March 29, 2014, Lesley Chamberlain
  16. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 31
  17. ^ Ignatieff 1998, pp. 33–37
  18. ^ The Book of Isaiah: Personal Impressions of Isaiah Berlin, edited by Henry Hardy, (Boydell & Brewer 2013), page 180
  19. ^ Cultural Diversity, Liberal Pluralism and Schools: Isaiah Berlin and Education (Routledge, 2006), Neil Burtonwood, page 11
  20. ^ Dubnov A.M. (2012) Becoming a Russian-Jew. In: Isaiah Berlin. Palgrave Studies in Cultural and Intellectual History. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
  21. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 57
  22. ^ Sir Isaiah's Modest Zionism
  23. ^ http://contemporarythinkers.org/isaiah-berlin/biography/
  24. ^ Hachey, Thomas E. (Winter 1973–1974). "American Profiles on Capitol Hill: A Confidential Study for the British Foreign Office in 1943" (PDF). Wisconsin Magazine of History. 57 (2): 141–153. JSTOR 4634869. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2013.
  25. ^ London Gazette, 1 January 1946.
  26. ^ Brooks, David (2 May 2014), "Love Story", The New York Times.
  27. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
  28. ^ Ignatieff 1998, p. 268
  29. ^ "Founding Council". The Rothermere American Institute. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-22.
  30. ^ Isaiah Berlin, Building: Letters 1960–1975, ed. Henry Hardy and Mark Pottle (London: Chatto and Windus, 2013), 377–8.
  31. ^ Berger, Marilyn (10 November 1997). "Isaiah Berlin, Philosopher And Pluralist, Is Dead at 88". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
  32. ^ Letter to Noel Annan quoted in Lloyd-Jones, p. 53.
  33. ^ a b c Ignatieff 1998, p. 113
  34. ^ D. Bleich (2006). "The Materiality of Reading". New Literary History. 37: 607–629. doi:10.1353/nlh.2006.0000. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
  35. ^ Berlin, Isaiah (1997). Hardy, Henry; Hausheer, Roger, eds. The Proper Study of Mankind: An Anthology of Essays. Chatto and Windus. pp. 238, 11. ISBN 0-7011-6527-8. OCLC 443072603.
  36. ^ Brown, Alan (1986). Modern Political Philosophy: Theories of the Just Society. Middlesex: Penguin Books. pp. 157–8. ISBN 0-14-022528-5. OCLC 14371928.
  37. ^ Jahanbegloo, Ramin. Conversations with Isaiah Berlin. Halban Publishers. p. 188. ISBN 1-870015-48-7. OCLC 26358922.
  38. ^ "Personal Impressions".
  39. ^ The Isaiah Berlin Day in Riga 2015
  40. ^ Isaiah Berlin Lectures
  41. ^ Rare correspondence between Sir Isaiah Berlin and David Ben-Gurion on “Who is a Jew?” donated to BGU
  42. ^ [1]
  43. ^ "The Age of Enlightenment" (PDF). 2017. Retrieved 2017-08-29.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Books[edit]

Tributes, obituaries, articles and profiles[edit]

External links[edit]

External video
Booknotes interview with Michael Ignatieff on Isaiah Berlin: A Life, 24 January 1999, C-SPAN
Academic offices
Preceded by
G. D. H. Cole 		Chichele Professor of
Social and Political Theory
1957–1967 		Succeeded by
John Plamenatz
New office President of Wolfson College, Oxford
1965–1975 		Succeeded by
Sir Henry Fisher
Professional and academic associations
Preceded by
H. D. Lewis 		President of the Aristotelian Society
1963–1964 		Succeeded by
W. H. Walsh
Preceded by
Sir Denys Page 		President of the British Academy
1974–1978 		Succeeded by
Sir Kenneth Dover
Awards
Preceded by
Octavio Paz 		Jerusalem Prize
1979 		Succeeded by
Graham Greene
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