Keres language

For the US Navy cargo ship, see USS Keresan (ID-1806).

Keresan
Region	New Mexico
Ethnicity	Keres
Native speakers	10,670 (2007)
Language family	Language isolate
Dialects	East Keres West Keres
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Either: kee – Eastern kjq – Western
Glottolog	kere1287
Pre-contact distribution of Keresan languages

Keresan /ˈkɛrɪsən/, also Keres /kəˈriːs/, is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on analysis, Keresan is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages.

Family division

• Eastern Keres: total of 4,580 speakers (1990 census)
  • Cochiti Pueblo Kotyit dialect: 384 speakers (1990 census)
  • San Felipe Pueblo – Santo Domingo Pueblo:
    • Katishtya dialect: 1,560 speakers (1990 census)
    • Kewa dialect: 1,880 speakers (1990 census)
  • Zia Pueblo – Santa Ana Pueblo:
    • Ts'ia dialect: 463 speakers (1990 census)
    • Tamaiya dialect: 229 speakers (1990 census)
• Western Keres: total of 3,391 speakers (1990 census)
  • Acoma Pueblo Áakʼu dialect: 1,696 speakers (1980 census)
  • Laguna Pueblo Kawaika dialect: 1,695 speakers (1990 census)

Genetic relationships

Keres is now considered a language isolate. In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan–Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita. Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan, Yuchi, Caddoan, and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of the proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research.

Phonology

Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 95 phonemes, depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures, Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory.

The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates, the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops.

The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: / é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː /, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.

Consonants

The chart below contains the consonants of the proto-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005).

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Retroflex	Postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	p	t	c			k	ʔ
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	cʰ			kʰ
	palatalized		tʲ, tʲʰ, tʼʲ
	ejective	pʼ	tʼ	cʼ			kʼ
Fricative	voiceless		s		ʂ	ʃ		h
	ejective		sʼ		ʂʼ	ʃʼ
Affricate	voiceless		ts		tʂ	tʃ
	aspirated		tsʰ		tʂʰ	tʃʰ
	ejective		tsʼ		tʂʼ	tʃʼ
Approximant	voiced	w	ɽ	j
	glottalized	wˀ	ɽˀ	jˀ
Nasal	voiced	m	n	ɲ
	glottalized	mˀ	nˀ	ɲˀ

Vowels

Keresan vowels have a phonemic distinction in duration: all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987).

	Long		Short
	Phonemic	Phonetic	Phonemic	Phonetic	Voiceless
Close	/ iː /	[ i ]	/ i /	[ i ɪ ]	[ ɪ̥ ]
Mid-front	/ eː /	[ eː ]	/ e /	[e ɛ æ ]	[ e̥ ]
Mid-central	/ ɨː /	[ əː ɨː ]	/ ɨ /	[ ə ɨ ɤ ]	[ ɨ̥ ]
Open	/ ɑː /	[ aː ɑː ]	/ ɑ /	[ a ɑ ]	[ ḁ ]
Back-close	/ oː /	[ oː ]	/ o /	[ o ]	[ o̥ ]
	/ uː /	[ uː ]	/ u /	[ u ʊ o ]	[ ʊ̥ ]

Notes:

• Western Keres does not have phonemic /oː/ or /o/, though both vowels may occur phonetically. Eastern Keres words containing /o/ show /au/ in Western Keres.
  • Kotyit Keres: [ ʂóːkʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ] - I see you
  • Kʼawaika Keres: [ ʂɑ̌ukʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ] - I see you

Voiceless vowels

All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial. Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced.

• Word-final devoicing: [ pɑ̌ːkʊ̥ ] because
• Word-medial devoicing: [ ʔìpʰi̥ʃɑ́ ] white paint

Tones

Acoma Keres has four lexical tones: high, low, falling and rising. Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:

Tones	examples	translation
High	[tɨ́j] , [áwáʔáwá]	here, matrilineal uncle
Low	[mùːtètsá]	young boy
Rising	[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]	because
Falling	[ʔêː] , [hêːk'a]	and, whole part

Syllable structure

Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape. The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language.

Syllable type	examples	translation
CV	[sʼà], [ʔɪ]shv́v	I have it, left
CVV	[mùː]dedza , a[táù]shi	young boy, cooking pot
CCV	[ʃkʰí]srátsʼa	I'm not fat
CCVV	[ʃtùː]sra	bluejay
CVC	í[miʔ], [kùm]banêeru	expression of fear, workmate (Spanish "compañero")

Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.

• Word-internal cluster: yʼâakạ srûunị 'stomach' /jˀɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni/ > [jɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni] ~ [jɑ̂ːkʂûːni]
• Word-final coda: úwàakạ 'baby'; /úwɑ̀ːkḁ/ > [úwɑ̀ːkʰḁ] ~ [úwɑ̀ːkʰ]'

Phonotactics

The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C₁, it combines with alveolar and palatal C₂, whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C₂s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially.

C1 / C2	Bilabial			Alveolar			Velar			Postalveolar
	/ p /	/ pʰ /	/ pʼ /	/ t /	/ tʰ /	/ tʼ /	/ k /	/ kʰ /	/ kʼ /	/ tʃ /	/ tʃʰ /	/ tʃʼ /
/ ʃ /				/ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥/ shdáurákụ 'frog, toad'	/ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká/ shtérashtʼígá 'cricket'	/ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥/ shtʼidyàatịshị 'plot of land'				/ʃtʃɨ/ shjv 'upward'	/ʃtʃʰúmúná/ shchúmúmá 'wasp'	/ʃtʃʼísḁ/ shchʼísạ 'six'
/ ʂ /	/ʂpúːná/ srbúuná 'water jug'	/ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi/ srpàat'i 'mockingbird'	/ʂpʼeruru/ srpʼeruru 'it's full'				/ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa/ srgásrgáukʼa 'quail'	/ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥/ srkv́dútsị 'mound, hill'	/ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́/ srkʼabíhí 'female in-law'

Orthography

Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form. The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres, both of which are remarkably consistent.

In the Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below.

Consonant Symbols

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Retroflex	Postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	⟨b⟩	⟨d⟩	⟨dy⟩			⟨g⟩	⟨ʼ⟩
	aspirated	⟨p⟩	⟨t⟩	⟨ty⟩			⟨k⟩
	ejective	⟨pʼ⟩	⟨tʼ⟩	⟨tyʼ⟩			⟨kʼ⟩
Fricative	voiceless		⟨s⟩		⟨sr⟩	⟨sh⟩		⟨h⟩
	ejective		⟨sʼ⟩		⟨srʼ⟩	⟨shʼ⟩
Affricate	voiceless		⟨dz⟩		⟨dr⟩	⟨j⟩
	aspirated		⟨ts⟩		⟨tr⟩	⟨ch⟩
	ejective		⟨tsʼ⟩		⟨trʼ⟩	⟨chʼ⟩
Approximant	voiced	⟨w⟩	⟨r⟩	⟨y⟩
	glottalized	⟨wʼ⟩	⟨rʼ⟩	⟨yʼ⟩
Nasal	voiced	⟨m⟩	⟨n⟩	⟨ny⟩
	glottalized	⟨mʼ⟩	⟨nʼ⟩	⟨nyʼ⟩

Signage at Acoma Pueblo

Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above, as shown in the table:

Signage at Acoma Pueblo

General	⟨pʼ⟩	⟨tʼ⟩	⟨kʼ⟩	⟨sʼ⟩	⟨tsʼ⟩	⟨mʼ⟩	⟨wʼ⟩	⟨yʼ⟩	⟨nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ⟩
Acoma signage	⟨ṕ⟩	⟨t́⟩	⟨ḱ⟩	⟨ś⟩	⟨tś⟩	⟨ḿ⟩	⟨ẃ⟩	⟨ý⟩	?

Vowel Symbols

Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with a dot below (see table).

Long vowels		Short vowels		Voiceless vowels
Phoneme	Grapheme	Phoneme	Grapheme	Phoneme	Grapheme
/ iː /	⟨ii⟩	/ i /	⟨i⟩	/ ɪ̥ /	⟨i̱⟩ or ⟨ị⟩
/ eː /	⟨ee⟩	/ e /	⟨e⟩	/ e̥ /	⟨e̱⟩ or ⟨ẹ⟩
/ ɨː /	⟨ɨɨ⟩ or ⟨vv⟩	/ ɨ /	⟨ɨ⟩ or ⟨v⟩	/ ɨ̥ /	⟨ɨ̱⟩ or ⟨ṿ⟩
/ ɑː /	⟨aa⟩	/ ɑ /	⟨a⟩	/ ḁ /	⟨a̱⟩ or ⟨ạ⟩
/ oː /	⟨oo⟩	/ o /	⟨o⟩	/ o̥ /	⟨o̱⟩ or ⟨ọ⟩
/ uː /	⟨uu⟩	/ u /	⟨u⟩	/ ʊ̥ /	⟨u̱⟩ or ⟨ụ⟩

Diacritics for Tone

Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo, diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels.

	High tone	Low tone	Rising tone	Falling tone
Long Vowel	⟨áa⟩, ⟨úu⟩	⟨àa⟩, ⟨ùu⟩ or unmarked	⟨ǎa⟩, ⟨ǔu⟩ or ⟨aá⟩, ⟨uú⟩	⟨âa⟩, ⟨ûu⟩ or ⟨aà⟩, ⟨uù⟩
Short Vowel	⟨á⟩, ⟨ú⟩	⟨à⟩, ⟨ù⟩ or unmarked	-

Keres Alphabet and Alphabetical order

Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists only one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. Both the glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩ and long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters.

Alphabetical order in the Acoma Keres Audio Dictionary

A	B	CH	CHʼ	D	DR	DY	DZ	E	G	H	I	J	K	Kʼ	M	Mʼ	N	Nʼ	NY	NYʼ	P
Pʼ	R	Rʼ	S	Sʼ	SH	SHʼ	SR	SRʼ	T	TR	TRʼ	TS	TSʼ	TY	TYʼ	U	W	Wʼ	Y	Yʼ

Sample texts

Orthography marking tone

Woodpecker and Coyote

Ái dítʼîishu srbígà kʼánâaya dyáʼâʼu. Shʼée srbígà ái dyěitsị ái náyáa shdyɨ dyáʼa.

Orthography without tone marking

Boas text

Baanaʼa, egu kauʼseeʼe, atsi sʼaama-ee srayutse.

Morphosyntax

Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described.

The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing, although suffixes and reduplication also occur. Keresan distinguishes nouns, verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number, but they can be inflected for possession, with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes.

Word order

Keresan is a verb-final language, though word order is rather flexible.

Laguna Keres

S	O	V
John	Bill	gukacha
J.	B.	g-Ø-ukacha
John	Bill	3s-3s-see
'John saw Bill'

Negation

Negation is doubly marked in Keresan. In addition to the adverb dzaadi, verbs index negation through a suffix (e.g. -u).

• Gukacha 'S/he saw her/him'
• Dzaadi gukachau 'S/he didn't see her/him'

Verbal morphology

The verb is a central grammatical category in Keres, conveying the most information about events in communicative acts. Through its morphemes, Keresan verbs code not only person and number of the initiator of the action (e.g. 'Tammy drinks decaf') as is common in Indo-European languages, but also how the initiator is implicated in the action. For instance, the three verbs that describe Tammy's actions in 'Tammy kicked the ball' vs. 'Tammy jumped' vs. 'Tammy sneezed', where kicking, jumping and sneezing require different levels of effort from Tammy. The person and number of the undergoer of the action is also coded on the verb (e.g. gukacha means 'S/he sees her/him' on its la ), as well as how the speaker assesses the action ('I think Tammy arrived from class' vs. 'Tammy arrived from class'). Finally, the internal temporal structure of the action (i.e. aspect, as in 'Tammy was sneezing in class' vs. 'Tammy sneezed in class').

According to Maring (1967), the Keresan verb is organized around the following grammatical categories (pp. 39-40)

• Subject/Object relations
  • Subject of intransitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
  • Subject of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
  • Object of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that combines with the subject prefix, or by a suffix
• Number relations
  • Singular: usually marked by a prefix
  • Dual: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication or by suffixes
  • Plural: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication, by suffixes or by suppletive stem forms (i.e. singular and plural forms are not related etymologically)
• Temporal relations
  • Future: is marked on the verb by a series of prefixes that also encode number
• Modality relations
  • Indicative
  • Dubitative
  • Hortative
    • Negative hortative
  • Negative
    • Future negative
• Voice relations
  • Active
  • Passive
  • Reflexive
  • Reciprocal
• Aspect
  • Imperfective
  • Inceptive
  • Repetitive
  • Continuative
  • Habitual
  • Inchoative
  • Perfective

The verbal prefix

In Keres, the verbal prefix carries information from five different grammatical categories: argument role, modality, polarity, person and number. That is, a single Keresan verb prefix codes who initiated the action and how implicated that entity is (the subject/case), whom underwent the effects of the action (the direct object), the speaker's assessment of the action (the modality) and whether it occurred or not (polarity). On the other hand, information about when the action took place (i.e. tense) is expressed elsewhere in a clause, mostly by adverbs.

Number

Keresan verbs distinguish three numbers: singular, dual (two entities) and plural (more than two entities); and four persons: first (the speaker), second (the hearer), third (a known, definite or salient entity being talked about) and fourth (a non-salient, unknown or indefinite entity being talked about, also known as obviative) persons. The plural and dual forms are often marked by reduplication of part of the stem (gukacha 's/he saw it' vs guʼukacha 'the two of them saw it').

Argument role

Languages encode two main types of actions: those in which the main participant initiates an action that produces change in an object (e.g. kick a ball, buy a gift, cook a dish, read a book); and those in which the action produces no (perceived) change in the world or that have no object (sneezing, breathing, growing, diving, etc.). Actions that take an object are encoded by transitive verbs, whereas those that take no object are expressed via intransitive verbs.

Intransitive verbs

In Indo-European languages like English, all intransitive verbs behave similarly ('They sneeze/breathe/dive/think/etc.'). In Keresan, actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how implicated the initiator of the action is. More active-like intransitive verbs are coded through one set of morphemes, whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree are coded using a separate set of prefixes.

Degrees of involvement of the initiator in Keres

	Actions	Intransitive verb type
More	to write (-dyàatra), to steal as a thief (-chʼáwʼa), to have diarrhea (-ushchʼi), to leave (-mi), to whistle (-srbiitsa)	Active
Less	to believe (-hima), to be born (-dyá), to sleep (-bái), to be afraid (-tyishu), to forget (-dyúmidruwi)	Inactive

Ideas expressed in Indo-European languages with adjectives are most often encoded by verbs in Keresan. That is, in Keresan one says 'He selfishes' as opposed to 'He is selfish'. Such "actions" are beyond the control of the entity that is characterized by them, and thus belong in the Inactive intransitive category. The different sets of prefixes are shown below:

Intransitive Prefixes by Verb Type

	Active intransive			Inactive intrasitive
	Prefix	Example		Prefix	Example
first	s(i)-	sudyàatra	I write	srk-	srkuhima	I believe
second	sr-	srúuchʼáwʼa	you steal	kɨdr-	kɨdrâidyá	you were born
third	k-	kashdyuwàanʼi	s/he sweats	dz-	dzíibái	he is sleeping

Transitive verbs

Transitive verb - Indicative mood (-ukạchạ 'to see')

	Direct object
	singular
Subject		first ('me')	second ('ya')	third (her/him)	fourth
	first	-	srà-ukạchạ	sì-ukạchạ	-
			I see you	I see her/him
	second	dyù-ukạchạ	-	srù-ukạchạ
		you see me		you see her/him
	third	srgù-ukạchạ	kudrù -ukạchạ	g-ukạchạ	gù-ukạchạ
		s/he sees me	s/he sees you	s/he sees her/him	s/he sees that
	fourth	-		dzì-ukạchạ	-
				one sees it

Aspect

Aspect in Keresan is signalled by suffixes

-ajanu 'to rain'

kájáni	it rains
káajáni	it is raining
kájásɨ	it keeps raining
káajatú	it rained

Time (tense) adverbials

The category of tense is expressed in Keresan via adverbs that indicate when the action about which one is speaking took place.

Time adverbials in Acoma Keres

Past		Future
tsikʼínuma	long ago	kúsra	tonight
háma	once, formerly	nacháma	tomorrow
súwa	yesterday	naháayashi	day after tomorrow

Lexicon

New words are coined through a number of roots that are combined to pre-existing ones. Compounding is a common strategy for word building, although derivation also occurs.

Numerals

The Keresan numeral system is a base 10 system. Numerals 11-19, as well as those between the multiple of tens, are formed by adding the word kʼátsi (/ kʼátsʰɪ / 'ten') followed by the word dzidra (/tsɪtʂa/ 'more'). Numerals 20 and above are formed by adding a multiplicative adverb (-wa or -ya) to the base number and the word kʼátsi.

Western Keres
1	ísrkʼé	11	kʼátsi-írskʼá-dzidra	21	dyúya-kʼátsi-íisrkʼé-dzidra
2	dyúuwʼée	12	kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra	22	dyúya-kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra
3	chameʼée	13	kʼátsi-chami-dzidra	30	chamiya-kʼátsi
4	dyáana	14	kʼátsi-dyáana-dzidra	40	dyáanawa-kʼátsi
5	táam'a	15	kʼátsi-táamʼa-dzidra	50	táamʼawa-kʼátsi
6	shʼísa	16	kʼátsi-shchʼísa-dzidra	60	shchʼísawa-kʼátsi
7	mʼáiʼdyàana	17	kʼátsi-mʼáidyana-dzidra	70	mʼáidyanawa-kʼátsi
8	kukʼúmishu	18	kʼátsi-kukʼúmishu-dzidra	80	kukʼúmishuwa-kʼátsi
9	máyúkʼu	19	kʼátsi-máiyúkʼa-dzidra	90	máiyúkʼuwa-kʼátsi
10	kʼátsi	20	dyúwa-kʼátsi	100	kʼádzawa-kʼátsi

Loanwords from Spanish

European colonizers arriving in the Southwest US brought with them material culture and concepts that were unknown to the peoples living in the area. Words for the new ideas introduced by Spaniards were often borrowed into Keres directly from Early Modern Spanish, and a large number of these persists in Modern Keresan.

Semantic domain	Modern Western Keres	Modern Spanish	English translation
Household items	kamárîita, kuchâaru, kujûuna, méesa, mendâan, kuwêeta	camarita, cuchara, colchón, mesa, ventana, cubeta (Mexico)	bed, spoon, mattress, table, window (glass), bucket
Social structure	gumbanêerụ, rái, murâatụ, merigâanạ, kumanirá, ninêeru	compañero, rey, mulato, americano(a), comunidad, dinero	workmate, king, black person, white person, community house, money
Food	géesu, arûusị, kawé, kurántụ, mantạgîiyụ, mandêegạ	queso, arroz, café, cilantro, mantequilla, manteca	cheese, rice, coffee, cilantro, butter, lard/butter
Animal husbandry	kawâayu, kanêeru, kujíinu, kurá, dûura, wáakạshị	caballo, carnero, cochino, corral, toro, vaca	horse, sheep, pen/corral, bull, cow
Religious concepts	míisa, Háasus Kuríistị, nachạwêena, guréesima	misa, Jesús Cristo, Noche Buena, Cuaresma	mass, Jesus Christ, Christmas, Lent
Days of the week	tamîikụ, rûunishị, mâatịsị, mérikụsị, sruwêewesị, yêenịsị, sâawaru	domingo, lunes, martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes, sábado	Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday

In popular media

Keres was one of the seven languages used in the Coca-Cola commercial called "It's Beautiful" broadcast during the 2014 Super Bowl.

See also

• Keresan Sign Language

Bibliography

• Boas, Franz. (1923). "A Keresan text", International Journal of American Linguistics, 2 (3/4), 171–180.
• Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
• Davis, Irvine. (1963). "Bibliography of Keresan linguistic sources", International Journal of American Linguistics, 29 (3), 289–293.
• Davis, Irvine. (1964). The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 191); Anthropological papers (No. 69). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Print. Off.
• Davis, Irvine. (1966). ["Review of Acoma grammar and texts by W. R. Miller"], American Anthropologist, 68 (3), 810–811.
• Davis, Irvine. (1968). ["Review of Acoma grammar and texts by W. R. Miller"], Language, 44 (1), 185–189.
• Davis, Irvine. (1974). "Keresan-Caddoan comparisons", International Journal of American Linguistics, 40 (3), 265–267.
• Hawley, Florence. (1950). "Keresan patterns of kinship and social organization", American Anthropologist, 52 (4), 499–512.
• Kroskrity, Paul V. (1983). "On male and female speech in the Pueblo Southwest", International Journal of American Linguistics, 49, 88–91.
• Lachler, Jordan. (2005). Grammar of Laguna Keres. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico dissertation.
• Maring, Joel. (1975). "Speech variation in Acoma Keresan", In D. Kinkade, K. L. Hale, & O. Werner (Eds.), Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C. F. Voegelin (pp. 473–485). Lisse: Peter de Ridder.
• Mickey, Barbara H. (1947). "Acoma kinship terms", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 12 (2), 249–256.
• Miller, Wick R. (1959). "Spanish loanwords in Acoma: I", International Journal of American Linguistics, 25 (3), 147–153.
• Miller, Wick R. (1959). "Some notes on Acoma kinship terminology", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 15 (2), 179–184.
• Miller, Wick R. (1960). "Spanish loanwords in Acoma: II", International Journal of American Linguistics, 26 (1), 41–49.
• Miller, Wick R. (1965). Acoma Grammar and Texts, University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 40). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
• Miller, Wick R.; & Davis, Irvine. (1963). "Proto-Keresan phonology", International Journal of American Linguistics, 29 (4), 310–330.
• Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
• Sims, Christine P.; & Valiquette, Hilaire. (1990). "More on male and female speech in (Acoma and Laguna) Keresan", International Journal of American Linguistics, 56 (1), 162–166.
• Spencer, Robert F. (1946). "The phonemes of Keresan", International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (4), 229–236.
• Spencer, Robert F. (1947). "Spanish loanwords in Keresan", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 3 (2), 130–146.
• Valiquette, Hilaire (1990). A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan.
• Walker, Willard. (1967). "Review of Acoma grammar and texts by W. R. Miller", International Journal of American Linguistics, 33 (3), 254–257.
• White, Leslie A. (1928). "Summary report of field work at Acoma", American Anthropologist, 30 (4), 559–568.
• Yumitani, Yukihiro. (1987). "A Comparative Sketch of Pueblo Languages: Phonology", Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics, Vol. 12, 135–139.

External links

• Nathan Romero, "Chochiti Keres: About Me and My Language: The politics of saving a vanishing language: The politics of writing", Language Documentation Training Center, University of Hawaii, Manoa (UHM)
• John Menaul (1880). Child's catechism in English and Laguna. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
• Grammatical and Lexical Notes on the Keres Language (Acoma-Laguna Dialect) of the Keresan Stock
• English-Queres Language Vocabulary
• Keres Language Project – Keres Audio Dictionary