Open back unrounded vowel
Open back unrounded vowel | |||
---|---|---|---|
ɑ | |||
IPA number | 305 | ||
Encoding | |||
Entity (decimal) | ɑ | ||
Unicode (hex) | U+0251 | ||
X-SAMPA | A | ||
Kirshenbaum | A | ||
Braille | |||
| |||
Listen | |||
The open back unrounded vowel, or low back unrounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɑ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is A
. The letter ⟨ɑ⟩ is called script a because it lacks the extra hook on top of a printed letter a, which corresponds to a different vowel, the open front unrounded vowel. Script a, which has its linear stroke on the bottom right, should not be confused with turned script a, ɒ, which has its linear stroke on the top left and corresponds to a rounded version of this vowel, the open back rounded vowel.
In some languages (such as Azerbaijani, Estonian, Luxembourgish and Toda)[2][3][4][5] there is the near-open back unrounded vowel (a sound between cardinal [ɑ] and [ʌ]), which can be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɑ̝⟩ or ⟨ʌ̞⟩.
The Hamont dialect of Limburgish has been reported to contrast long open front, central and back unrounded vowels.[6] This is extremely unusual.
Contents
Features[edit]
IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded |
- Its vowel height is open, also known as low, which means the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth – that is, as low as possible in the mouth.
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back.
- It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded.
Occurrence[edit]
Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Afrikaans | Standard[7] | daar | [dɑːr] | 'there' | The quality varies between open near-back unrounded [ɑ̟ː], open back unrounded [ɑː] and even open back rounded [ɒː].[7] See Afrikaans phonology |
Arabic | Standard[8] | طويل | [tˤɑˈwiːl] | 'tall' | Allophone of long and short /a/ near emphatic consonants, depending on the speaker's accent. See Arabic phonology |
Armenian | Eastern[8] | հաց | [hɑt͡sʰ] | 'bread' | |
Azerbaijani[2] | qardaş | [ɡɑ̝ɾˈd̪ɑ̝ʃ] | 'brother' | Near-open.[2] | |
Catalan | Many dialects[9] | pal | [ˈpɑɫ] | 'stick' | Allophone of /a/ in contact with velar consonants.[9] See Catalan phonology |
Some dialects[10][11] | mà | [ˈmɑ] | 'hand' | More central ([ɑ̟], [ä]) in other dialects; fully front [a] in Majorcan Catalan.[11] | |
Some Valencian and Majorcan speakers[9] | lloc | [ˈʎ̟ɑk] | 'place' | Unrounded allophone of /ɔ/ in some accents.[9] Can be centralized. | |
Some southern Valencian speakers[12] | bou | [ˈbɑw] | 'bull' | Pronunciation of the vowel /ɔ/ before [w].[12] Can be centralized. | |
Chinese | Mandarin[13] | 棒 / bàng | [pɑŋ˥˩] (help·info) | 'stick' | Allophone of /a/ before /ŋ/.[13] See Standard Chinese phonology |
Danish | Conservative[14] | barn | [ˈb̥ɑːˀn] | 'child' | Fully back; realized as central [ɑ̈ː] in contemporary Standard Danish.[15][16] See Danish phonology |
Dutch | Standard[17][18] | bad | [bɑt] | 'bath' | Backness varies among dialects; in the Standard Northern accent it is fully back.[19][17] In the Standard Belgian accent it is raised and fronted to [ɑ̝̈].[18] See Dutch phonology |
Leiden[19] | [bɑ̝t] | Near-open fully back; can be rounded [ɒ̝] instead.[19] See Dutch phonology | |||
Rotterdam[19] | |||||
Amsterdam[20] | aap | [ɑːp] | 'monkey' | Corresponds to [aː ~ äː] in standard Dutch. | |
Antwerp[21] | |||||
Utrecht[21] | |||||
The Hague[22] | nauw | [nɑː] | 'narrow' | Corresponds to [ʌu] in standard Dutch. | |
English | Cardiff[23] | hot | [hɑ̝̈t] | 'hot' | Somewhat raised and fronted.[23][24] |
Norfolk[24] | |||||
General American[25] | [hɑt] | May be more front [ɑ̟ ~ ä], especially in accents without the cot-caught merger. See English phonology | |||
Cockney[26] | bath | [bɑːθ] | 'bath' | Fully back. It can be more front [ɑ̟ː] instead. | |
General South African[27] | Fully back. Broad varieties usually produce a rounded vowel [ɒː ~ ɔː] instead, while Cultivated SAE prefers a more front vowel [ɑ̟ː ~ äː]. See South African English phonology | ||||
Cultivated South African[28] |
[bɑ̟ːθ] | Typically more front than cardinal [ɑ]. It may be as front as [äː] in some Cultivated South African and southern English speakers. See English phonology and South African English phonology | |||
Received Pronunciation[29] | |||||
Non-local Dublin[30] | back | [bɑq] | 'back' | Allophone of /æ/ before velars for some speakers.[30] | |
Estonian[3] | vale | [ˈvɑ̝le̞ˑ] | 'wrong' | Near-open.[3] See Estonian phonology | |
Faroese | Some dialects[31] | vátur | [ˈvɑːtʊɹ] | 'water' | Corresponds to /ɔɑ/ in standard language.[31] See Faroese phonology |
Finnish[32] | kana | [ˈkɑ̝nɑ̝] | 'hen' | Near-open,[32] also described as open central [ä].[33] See Finnish phonology | |
French | Conservative Parisian[34][35] | pas | [pɑ] | 'not' | Contrasts with /a/, but many speakers have only one open vowel [ä].[36] See French phonology |
Quebec[37] | pâte | [pɑːt] | 'paste' | Contrasts with /a/.[37] See Quebec French phonology | |
Galician[38][39] | irmán | [iɾˈmɑŋ] | 'brother' | Allophone of /a/ in contact with velar consonants.[38][39] See Galician phonology | |
Georgian[40] | გუდა / guda | [k̬ud̪ɑ] | 'leather bag' | Usually not fully back [ɑ], typically [ɑ̟] to [ä].[41] Sometimes transcribed as /a/. | |
German | Standard[42] | Gourmand | [ɡ̊ʊʁˈmɑ̃ː] | 'gourmand' | Nasalized; often realized as rounded [ɒ̃ː].[43] See Standard German phonology |
Many speakers[44] | nah | [nɑː] | 'near' | Used by speakers in Northern Germany, East Central Germany, Franconia and Switzerland.[44] Also a part of the Standard Austrian accent.[45] More front in other accents. See Standard German phonology | |
Northern German accents[44] | kommen | [ˈkʰɑmən] | 'to come' | Local realization of /ɔ/; can be central [ɐ] instead.[44] See Standard German phonology | |
Greek | Sfakian[46] | [example needed] | Corresponds to central [ä ~ ɐ] in Modern Standard Greek.[47][48] See Modern Greek phonology | ||
Hungarian | Some dialects[49] | magyar | [ˈmɑɟɑr] | 'Hungarian' | Weakly rounded [ɒ] in standard Hungarian.[50] See Hungarian phonology |
Inuit | West Greenlandic[51] | [example needed] | Allophone of /a/ before and especially between uvulars.[51] See Inuit phonology | ||
Italian | Some Piedmont dialects | casa | [ˈkɑːzɑ] | 'house' | Allophone of /a/ which in Italian is largely realised as central [ä]. |
Kaingang[52] | [ˈᵑɡɑ] | 'land, soil' | Varies between back [ɑ] and central [ɐ].[53] | ||
Limburgish[54][55][56] | bats | [bɑ̽ts] | 'buttock' | The quality varies between open back [ɑ],[54] open near-back [ɑ̟][55] and near-open near-back [ɑ̽][56] (illustrated in the example word, which is from the Maastrichtian dialect), depending on the dialect. | |
Low German[57] | al / aal | [ɑːl] | 'all' | Backness may vary among dialects.[57] | |
Luxembourgish[4] | Kapp | [kʰɑ̝p] | 'head' | Near-open fully back.[4] See Luxembourgish phonology | |
Malay | Kedah dialect[58] | mata | [matɑ] | 'eye' | See Malay phonology |
Norwegian[59][60] | hat | [hɑːt] | 'hate' | The example word is from Urban East Norwegian. Central [äː] in some other dialects.[59][60][61] See Norwegian phonology | |
Russian[62] | палка | [ˈpɑɫkə] | 'stick' | Occurs only before the hard /l/, but not when a palatalized consonant precedes. See Russian phonology | |
Sema[63] | amqa | [à̠mqɑ̀] | 'lower back' | Possible realization of /a/ after uvular stops.[63] | |
Swedish | Some dialects | jаg | [jɑːɡ] | 'I' | Weakly rounded [ɒ̜ː] in Central Standard Swedish.[64] See Swedish phonology |
Toda[5] | [orthographic form needed] |
[ɑ̝ːn] | 'elephant' | Near-open.[5] | |
Turkish[65] | at | [ɑt̪] | 'horse' | Also described as central [ä].[66] See Turkish phonology | |
Ukrainian[67] | мати | [ˈmɑtɪ] | 'mother' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
West Frisian | Standard[68] | lang | [ɫɑŋ] | 'long' | Also described as central [ä].[69] See West Frisian phonology |
Aastersk[70] | maat | [mɑːt] | 'mate' | Contrasts with a front /aː/.[70] See West Frisian phonology |
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- ^ a b c Mokari & Werner (2016), p. 509.
- ^ a b c Asu & Teras (2009), p. 368.
- ^ a b c Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
- ^ a b c Shalev, Ladefoged & Bhaskararao (1993), p. 92.
- ^ Verhoeven (2007), p. 221.
- ^ a b Wissing (2016), section "The unrounded low-central vowel /a/".
- ^ a b Thelwall & Sa'Adeddin (1990), p. 39.
- ^ a b c d Saborit (2009), p. 10.
- ^ Rafel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ a b Recasens (1996), pp. 90–92.
- ^ a b Recasens (1996), pp. 131–132.
- ^ a b Mou (2006), p. 65.
- ^ Ladefoged & Johnson (2010), p. 227.
- ^ Basbøll (2005), p. 46.
- ^ Grønnum (1998), p. 100.
- ^ a b Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47.
- ^ a b Verhoeven (2005), p. 245.
- ^ a b c d Collins & Mees (2003), p. 131.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 78, 104, 133.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 104, 133.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 136.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95.
- ^ a b Lodge (2009), p. 168.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 305.
- ^ Lass (2002), p. 117.
- ^ Lass (2002), p. 116-117.
- ^ Roach (2004), p. 242.
- ^ a b "Glossary". Retrieved 10 February 2015.
- ^ a b Árnason (2011), pp. 69, 79.
- ^ a b Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Maddieson (1984), cited in Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008:21)
- ^ Ashby (2011), p. 100.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2013), pp. 225–227.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2013), pp. 226–227.
- ^ a b Walker (1984), p. 53.
- ^ a b Regueira (1996), p. 122.
- ^ a b Freixeiro Mato (2006), pp. 72–73.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), pp. 261–262.
- ^ Aronson, Howard (1990), Georgian: A Reading Grammar (2nd ed.), Columbus, OH: Slavica
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 38.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 38.
- ^ a b c d Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- ^ Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015), pp. 342–344.
- ^ Trudgill (2009), pp. 83–84.
- ^ Trudgill (2009), p. 81.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), pp. 25, 28.
- ^ Vago (1980), p. 1.
- ^ Szende (1994), p. 92.
- ^ a b Fortescue (1990), p. 317.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676, 682.
- ^ a b Peters (2006), p. 119.
- ^ a b Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
- ^ a b Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 159.
- ^ a b Prehn (2012), p. 157.
- ^ Zaharani Ahmad (1991).
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000), pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b Kvifte & Gude-Husken (2005), p. 4.
- ^ Vanvik (1979), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 50.
- ^ a b Teo (2014), p. 28.
- ^ Engstrand (1999), p. 141.
- ^ Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 10.
- ^ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- ^ de Haan (2010), p. 333.
- ^ Visser (1997), p. 14.
- ^ a b van der Veen (2001), p. 102.
References[edit]
- Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
- Ashby, Patricia (2011), Understanding Phonetics, Understanding Language series, Routledge, ISBN 978-0340928271
- Asu, Eva Liina; Teras, Pire (2009), "Estonian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 367–372, doi:10.1017/s002510030999017x
- Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 0-203-97876-5
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard, English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (PDF) (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003], Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- de Haan, Germen J. (2010), Hoekstra, Jarich; Visser, Willem; Jensma, Goffe, eds., Studies in West Frisian Grammar: Selected Papers by Germen J. de Haan, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN 978-90-272-5544-0
- Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
- Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Fortescue, Michael (1990), "Basic Structures and Processes in West Greenlandic", in Collins, Dirmid R. F., Arctic Languages: An Awakening (PDF), Paris: UNESCO, pp. 309–332, ISBN 92-3-102661-5
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1993), "French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874
- Freixeiro Mato, Xosé Ramón (2006), Gramática da lingua galega (I). Fonética e fonoloxía (in Galician), Vigo: A Nosa Terra, ISBN 978-84-8341-060-8
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar (PDF), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2014
- Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies, 29: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
- Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28: 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307
- Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble", Anais do SETA, Campinas: Editora do IEL-UNICAMP, 3: 675–685
- Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
- Kráľ, Ábel (1988), Pravidlá slovenskej výslovnosti, Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
- Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
- Kvifte, Bjørn; Gude-Husken, Verena (2005) [First published 1997], Praktische Grammatik der norwegischen Sprache (3rd ed.), Gottfried Egert Verlag, ISBN 3-926972-54-8
- Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2010), A Course in Phonetics (6th ed.), Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4282-3126-9
- Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend, Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052
- Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
- Maddieson, Ian (1984), Patterns of Sounds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-26536-3
- Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
- Mokari, Payam Ghaffarvand; Werner, Stefan (2016), Dziubalska-Kolaczyk, Katarzyna, ed., "An acoustic description of spectral and temporal characteristics of Azerbaijani vowels", Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 52 (3), doi:10.1515/psicl-2016-0019
- Moosmüller, Sylvia; Schmid, Carolin; Brandstätter, Julia (2015), "Standard Austrian German", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (03): 339–348, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000055
- Mou, Xiaomin (2006). Nasal codas in Standard Chinese: a study in the framework of the distinctive feature theory (PhD). Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (1): 117–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
- Prehn, Maike (2012). Vowel quantity and the fortis-lenis distinction in North Low Saxon (PDF) (PhD). Amsterdam: LOT. ISBN 978-94-6093-077-5.
- Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 84-7283-446-8
- Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8
- Regueira, Xosé Luís (1996), "Galician", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 26 (2): 119–122, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006162
- Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768
- Saborit, Josep (2009), Millorem la pronúncia (in Catalan), Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- Shalev, Michael; Ladefoged, Peter; Bhaskararao, Peri (1993), "Phonetics of Toda", in Maddieson, Ian, Fieldwork studies of targeted languages, 84, Los Angeles: The UCLA Phonetics Laboratory Group, pp. 89–125
- Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish sound structure, ISBN 978-951-42-8983-5
- Szende, Tamás (1994), "Illustrations of the IPA: Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090
- Teo, Amos B. (2014), A phonological and phonetic description of Sumi, a Tibeto-Burman language of Nagaland (PDF), Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-1-922185-10-5
- Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–39, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266
- Trudgill, Peter (2009), "Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 9 (1): 80–97, doi:10.1163/156658409X12500896406041
- Vago, Robert M. (1980), The Sound Pattern of Hungarian, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press
- van der Veen, Klaas F. (2001), "13. West Frisian Dialectology and Dialects", in Munske, Horst Haider; Århammar, Hans, Handbook of Frisian studies, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, pp. 98–116, ISBN 3-484-73048-X
- Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6
- Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 245, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
- Verhoeven, Jo (2007), "The Belgian Limburg dialect of Hamont", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (2): 219–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100307002940
- Visser, Willem (1997). The Syllable in Frisian (PDF) (PhD). Leiden: Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics. ISBN 90-5569-030-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016.
- Walker, Douglas (1984), The Pronunciation of Canadian French (PDF), Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, ISBN 0-7766-4500-5
- Wells, J.C. (1982), Accents of English 2: The British Isles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- Wissing, Daan (2016). "Afrikaans phonology – segment inventory". Taalportaal. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7