Dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills
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The alveolar trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar trills is ⟨r⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r. It is commonly called the rolled R, rolling R, or trilled R. Quite often, ⟨r⟩ is used in phonemic transcriptions (especially those found in dictionaries) of languages like English and German that have rhotic consonants that are not an alveolar trill. That is partly for ease of typesetting and partly because ⟨r⟩ is the letter used in the orthographies of such languages.
In most Indo-European languages, the sound is at least occasionally allophonic with an alveolar tap [ɾ], particularly in unstressed positions. Exceptions include Albanian, Spanish, Cypriot Greek, and a number of Armenian and Portuguese dialects, which treat them as distinct phonemes. In a few languages, such as Batsbi, the tap is the vastly preferred allophone, to such a degree that it is treated as a phoneme whilst the trill is not.
People with ankyloglossia may find it exceptionally difficult to articulate the sound because of the limited mobility of their tongues.[1][2]
Contents
Voiced alveolar trill[edit]
| Alveolar trill | |
|---|---|
| r | |
| IPA number | 122 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | r |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0072 |
| X-SAMPA | r |
| Kirshenbaum | r<trl> |
| Braille |  |
| Listen | |
Most commonly, the alveolar trill is voiced.
Features[edit]
Features of the alveolar trill:
- Its manner of articulation is trill, which means it is produced by directing air over an articulator so that it vibrates.
- Its place of articulation is dental, alveolar or post-alveolar, which means it is articulated behind upper front teeth, at the alveolar ridge or behind the alveolar ridge. It is most often apical, which means that it is pronounced with the tip of the tongue.[3]
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence[edit]
Dental[edit]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hungarian[4] | arra | [ɒr̪ːɒ] | 'that way' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Romanian[5] | repede | [ˈr̪e̞pe̞d̪e̞] | 'quickly' | Apical. See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian[6] | рьяный | [ˈr̪ʲjän̪ɨ̞j] | 'zealous' | Apical, palatalized. Often a tap.[6] It contrasts with a post-alveolar trill. See Russian phonology | |
Alveolar[edit]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Standard[7] | rooi | [roːi̯] | 'red' | May be a tap [ɾ] instead.[7] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Arabic | Modern Standard | راء | [raːʔ] | Resh | [ɾ] in Egyptian |
| Armenian | Eastern[8] | ռումբ |  [rumb] (help·info) |
'cannonball' | |
| Bengali | রাত | [rat] | 'night' | See Bengali phonology | |
| Breton | roue | [ruːe] | 'king' | Dominant in and around Léon and Morbihan while many other dialects have adopted the voiced uvular fricative. See Breton phonology | |
| Czech[9] | chlor | [xlɔ̝ːr] | 'chlorine' | Contrasts with /r̝/; may be syllabic. See Czech phonology | |
| Danish | Few speakers of the Jutlandic dialect[10] | [example needed] | Corresponds to much more back [ʁ ~ ʕ] in standard Danish. See Danish phonology | ||
| Dutch | Standard | raam | [raːm] | 'window' | |
| English | Scottish | curd | [kʌrd] | 'curd' | Only some dialects. Corresponds to [ɾ ~ ɹ] in others. See English phonology |
| Esperanto | Esperanto | [espeˈranto] | 'who hopes' | Usually a flap [ɾ]. See Esperanto phonology | |
| Finnish | raaka | [rɑ:kɑ] | 'raw' | See Finnish phonology | |
| Greek | Standard[11] | άρτος | [ˈartos] | 'Communion bread' | Allophone of /r/. Usual in clusters, otherwise a tap or an approximant.[11] See Modern Greek phonology |
| Cypriot[12][13] | βορράς | [voˈrːas] | 'north' | Contrasts with /ɾ/. | |
| Hebrew | Sephardi | ריש | [ˈreʃ] | 'Resh' | See Sephardi Hebrew |
| Hindustani | पत्थर / پتھر | [pət̪t̪ʰər] | 'stone' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| Italian[14] | terra | [ˈt̪ɛrːä] (help·info) |
'earth' | See Italian phonology | |
| Kele[15] | [ⁿrikei] | 'leg' | |||
| Kyrgyz[16] | ыр | [ɯr] | 'song' | ||
| Latvian[17] | rags | [räks̪] | 'horn' | See Latvian phonology | |
| Malay | kurang | [kuräŋ] | 'less' | ||
| Polish[18] | krok | [krɔk] (help·info) |
'step' | See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese | rato | [ratu] | 'mouse' | Contrasts with /ɾ/. Many northern dialects retain the alveolar trill, and the trill is still dominant in rural areas. See Portuguese phonology and Guttural R. | |
| Scots | bricht | [brɪçt] | 'bright' | ||
| Scottish Gaelic | ceart | [kʲarˠʃd] | 'true' | Pronounced as a trill at the beginning of a word, or as rr, or before consonants d, t, l, n, s; otherwise a voiced alveolar tap. Contrasts with /ɾʲ/ and /ɾ/ intervocally and word-finally. See Scottish Gaelic phonology | |
| Serbo-Croatian[19] | рт / rt | [r̩t] | 'cape' | May be syllabic. See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Slovak[20] | krk | [kr̩k] | 'neck' | May be a tap, particularly when not syllabic. | |
| Slovene[21] | riž | [ríːʃ] | 'rice' | Also described as tap [ɾ],[22] and variable between trill [r] and tap [ɾ].[23] See Slovene phonology | |
| Spanish[24] | perro | [ˈpe̞ro̞] (help·info) |
'dog' | Contrasts with /ɾ/. See Spanish phonology | |
| Swedish | Some West coast dialects | bra | [brɑː] | 'good' | Allophone of /ɹ/. Very common in Gothenburg , second-largest city in Sweden, and the surrounding areas. See Swedish phonology |
| Tagalog | rambutan | [rɐmbuˈtan] | 'rambutan' | Allophone of the more common [ɾ], especially with more conservative speakers.[25] See Tagalog phonology | |
| Titan[15] | [ⁿrakeiʔin] | 'girls' | |||
| Ukrainian | рух | [rux] | 'motion' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Welsh | Rhagfyr | [ˈr̥aɡvɨr] | 'December' | Contrasts with the voiceless alveolar trill, /r̥/. See Welsh phonology | |
| Yiddish | Standard[26] | בריק | [brɪk] | 'bridge' | More commonly a flap [ɾ]; can be uvular [ɢ̆ ~ ʀ] instead.[26] See Yiddish phonology |
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[27] | r-ree | [rɘˀɘ] | 'go out (habitually)' | Underlyingly two sequences of /ɾ/. |
Post-alveolar[edit]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catalan[28] | roba | [ˈr̠ɔβ̞ə] | 'clothes' | Contrasts with /ɾ/. See Catalan phonology | |
| Gokana[29] | bele | [bēr̠ē] | 'we' | Allophone of /l/, medially between vowels within the morpheme, and finally in the morpheme before a following vowel in the same word. It can be a postalveolar tap or simply [l] instead.[29] | |
| Russian[6] | играть | [ɪˈɡr̠ätʲ] | 'to play' | Contrasts with a palatalized dental trill. See Russian phonology | |
Variable[edit]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| German | Standard[30] | Schmarrn | [ʃmaːrn] | 'nonsense' | Varies between apical dental and apical alveolar; may be a tap instead.[30] See Standard German phonology |
Voiced alveolar fricative trill [edit]
| Voiced alveolar fricative trill | |
|---|---|
| r̝ | |
| r̻ | |
| IPA number | 122 429 |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA | r_r |
| Listen | |
In Czech, there are two contrasting alveolar trills. Besides the typical apical trill, written r, there is another, laminal trill, written ř, in words such as rybáři [ˈrɪbaːr̝ɪ] 'fishermen' and the common surname Dvořák. Its manner of articulation is similar to [r] but is laminal and the body of the tongue is raised. It is thus partially fricative, with the frication sounding rather like [ʒ] but not so retracted. It sounds like a simultaneous [r] and [ʒ], and non-native speakers may pronounce it as [rʐ] or [ɹʒ]. In the IPA, it is typically written as ⟨r⟩ plus the raising diacritic, ⟨r̝⟩, but it has also been written as laminal ⟨r̻⟩.[31] (Before the 1989 IPA Kiel Convention, it had a dedicated symbol ⟨ɼ⟩.) The Kobon language of Papua New Guinea also has a fricative trill, but the degree of frication is variable.
Features[edit]
Features of the voiced alveolar fricative trill:
- Its manner of articulation is fricative trill, which means it is a non-sibilant fricative and a trill pronounced simultaneously.
- Its place of articulation is laminal alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Examples[edit]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Czech[32][33][34][35] | čtyři | [ˈt͡ʃtɪr̝ɪ] (help·info) |
'four' | May be a non-sibilant fricative.[33] It contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. See Czech phonology | |
| Kashubian[36] | [example needed] | Only some northern and northwestern speakers.[36] | |||
| Kobon | [example needed] | Amount of frication variable. May also be a fricative flap[citation needed] | |||
| Polish | Some dialects[37] | rzeka | 'river' | Contrasts with /r/ and /ʐ/. Present in areas from Starogard Gdański to Malbork[37] and those south, west and northwest of them,[37] area from Lubawa to Olsztyn to Olecko to Działdowo,[37] south and east from Wieleń,[37] around Wołomin,[37] southeast from Ostrów Mazowiecka[37] and west from Siedlce,[37] from Brzeg to Opole and those north of them,[37] and roughly from Racibórz to Nowy Targ.[37] Most speakers, as well as standard Polish merge it with /ʐ/,[37] and speakers maintaining the distinction (which is mostly the elderly) sporadically do that too.[37] See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese[38] | os rins | [u ˈr̝ĩʃ] | 'the kidneys' | Possible realization of the sequence /sr/ for speakers who realize /r/ as [r].[38] See Portuguese phonology | |
| Russian | ржавчина | [r̝aft͡ɕɪnə] | 'rust' | Possible realization of the sequence /rʐ/. See Russian phonology | |
| Silesian | Gmina Istebna[39] | umrził | [ˈumr̝iw] | '(he) died' | Contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. Merges with /ʐ/ in most Polish dialects. |
| Jablunkov[39] | [example needed] | ||||
| Slovak | Northern dialects[37][40] | řyka | [ˈr̝ɪkä] | 'river' | Only in a few dialects near the Polish border.[37] See Slovak phonology |
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ Chaubal & Dixit (2011:270–272)
- ^ Mayo Clinic (2012)
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:228)
- ^ Siptár & Törkenczy (2000:75–76), Szende (1999:104)
- ^ Ovidiu Drăghici, Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie (PDF), retrieved April 19, 2013[dead link]
- ^ a b c Skalozub (1963:?); cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:221)
- ^ a b Lass (1987), p. 117.
- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009:19)
- ^ Pultrová (2013:22)
- ^ Torp (2001:78)
- ^ a b Arvaniti (2007:14–18)
- ^ Arvaniti (2010:3–4)
- ^ "βορράς", Cypriot Greek Lexicographic Database, Ερευνητικό Πρόγραμμα Συντυσές, 2011, retrieved 5 March 2014
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004:117)
- ^ a b Ladefoged (2005:165)
- ^ Kara (2003:11)
- ^ Nau (1998:6)
- ^ Jassem (2003:103)
- ^ Kordić (2006:5), Landau et al. (1999:66)
- ^ Hanulíková & Hamann (2010:374)
- ^ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980:21)
- ^ Šuštaršič, Komar & Petek (1999:135)
- ^ Greenberg (2006:17 and 20)
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003:255)
- ^ Schachter and Reid (2008)
- ^ a b Kleine (2003:263)
- ^ Merrill (2008:109)
- ^ Recasens & Pallarès (1995:288)
- ^ a b L.F. Brosnahan, Outlines of the phonology of the Gokana dialect of Ogoni (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-03, retrieved 2013-11-24
- ^ a b Mangold (2005:53)
- ^ For example, Ladefoged (1971).
- ^ Dankovičová (1999:70–71)
- ^ a b Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:228–230 and 233)
- ^ Lodge (2009:46)
- ^ Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012:226)
- ^ a b Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Gwary polskie - Frykatywne rż (ř), Gwarypolskie.uw.edu.pl, archived from the original on 2013-03-13, retrieved 2013-11-06
- ^ a b Grønnum (2005:157)
- ^ a b Dąbrowska (2004:?)
- ^ Dudášová-Kriššáková (1995:98)
References[edit]
- "Tongue-tie (ankyloglossia)", Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, May 16, 2012, retrieved 22 October 2013
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2010), "A (brief) review of Cypriot Phonetics and Phonology", The Greek Language in Cyprus from Antiquity to the Present Day (PDF), University of Athens, pp. 107–124, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-23
- Chaubal, Tanay V.; Dixit, Mala Baburaj (2011), "Ankyloglossia and its Management", Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology, 15 (3): 270–272, doi:10.4103/0972-124X.85673, PMC 3200025, PMID 22028516
- Dąbrowska, Anna (2004), Język polski, Wrocław: wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, ISBN 83-7384-063-X
- Dankovičová, Jana (1999), "Czech", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–74, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Dudášová-Kriššáková, Júlia (1995), "Goralské nárečia (poznámky na okraj hesla v Encyklopédii jazykovedy)" (PDF), Slovenská reč, 60 (2): 92–102
- Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
- Greenberg, Mark L. (2006), A Short Reference Grammar of Standard Slovene, Kansas: University of Kansas
- Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
- Pultrová, Lucie (2013), ON THE PHONETIC NATURE OF THE LATIN R (PDF), p. 22
- Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
- Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 3895868434
- Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385
- Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 3-89586-161-8
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- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
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- Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques, Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 9067652970
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- Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
- Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
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- Šimáčková, Šárka; Podlipský, Václav Jonáš; Chládková, Kateřina (2012), "Czech spoken in Bohemia and Moravia" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 225–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000102
- Siptár, Péter; Törkenczy, Miklós (2000), The Phonology of Hungarian, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823841-6
- Skalozub, Larisa (1963), Palatogrammy i Rentgenogrammy Soglasnyx Fonem Russkogo Literaturnogo Jazyka, Izdatelstvo Kievskogo Universiteta
- Šuštaršič, Rastislav; Komar, Smiljana; Petek, Bojan (1999), "Slovene", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, 23, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 135–139, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
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- Torp, Arne (2001), "Retroflex consonants and dorsal /r/: mutually excluding innovations? On the diffusion of dorsal /r/ in Scandinavian", in van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland, 'r-atics, Brussels: Etudes & Travaux, pp. 75–90, ISSN 0777-3692
